/******************************************************************************
 *
 * Project:  Virtual GDAL Datasets
 * Purpose:  Tile index based VRT
 * Author:   Even Rouault <even dot rouault at spatialys.com>
 *
 ******************************************************************************
 * Copyright (c) 2023, Even Rouault <even dot rouault at spatialys.com>
 *
 * SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
 ****************************************************************************/

/*! @cond Doxygen_Suppress */

#include <array>
#include <algorithm>
#include <atomic>
#include <cmath>
#include <limits>
#include <mutex>
#include <set>
#include <tuple>
#include <utility>
#include <vector>

#include "cpl_port.h"
#include "cpl_error_internal.h"
#include "cpl_json.h"
#include "cpl_mem_cache.h"
#include "cpl_minixml.h"
#include "cpl_quad_tree.h"
#include "vrtdataset.h"
#include "vrt_priv.h"
#include "ogrsf_frmts.h"
#include "ogrwarpedlayer.h"
#include "gdal_proxy.h"
#include "gdal_thread_pool.h"
#include "gdal_utils.h"

#if defined(__SSE2__) || defined(_M_X64)
#define USE_SSE2_OPTIM
#include <emmintrin.h>
// MSVC doesn't define __SSE4_1__, but if -arch:AVX2 is enabled, we do have SSE4.1
#if defined(__SSE4_1__) || defined(__AVX2__)
#define USE_SSE41_OPTIM
#include <smmintrin.h>
#endif
#endif

// Semantincs of indices of a GeoTransform (double[6]) matrix
constexpr int GT_TOPLEFT_X = 0;
constexpr int GT_WE_RES = 1;
constexpr int GT_ROTATION_PARAM1 = 2;
constexpr int GT_TOPLEFT_Y = 3;
constexpr int GT_ROTATION_PARAM2 = 4;
constexpr int GT_NS_RES = 5;

constexpr const char *GTI_PREFIX = "GTI:";

constexpr const char *MD_DS_TILE_INDEX_LAYER = "TILE_INDEX_LAYER";

constexpr const char *MD_RESX = "RESX";
constexpr const char *MD_RESY = "RESY";
constexpr const char *MD_BAND_COUNT = "BAND_COUNT";
constexpr const char *MD_DATA_TYPE = "DATA_TYPE";
constexpr const char *MD_NODATA = "NODATA";
constexpr const char *MD_MINX = "MINX";
constexpr const char *MD_MINY = "MINY";
constexpr const char *MD_MAXX = "MAXX";
constexpr const char *MD_MAXY = "MAXY";
constexpr const char *MD_GEOTRANSFORM = "GEOTRANSFORM";
constexpr const char *MD_XSIZE = "XSIZE";
constexpr const char *MD_YSIZE = "YSIZE";
constexpr const char *MD_COLOR_INTERPRETATION = "COLOR_INTERPRETATION";
constexpr const char *MD_SRS = "SRS";
constexpr const char *MD_LOCATION_FIELD = "LOCATION_FIELD";
constexpr const char *MD_SORT_FIELD = "SORT_FIELD";
constexpr const char *MD_SORT_FIELD_ASC = "SORT_FIELD_ASC";
constexpr const char *MD_BLOCK_X_SIZE = "BLOCKXSIZE";
constexpr const char *MD_BLOCK_Y_SIZE = "BLOCKYSIZE";
constexpr const char *MD_MASK_BAND = "MASK_BAND";
constexpr const char *MD_RESAMPLING = "RESAMPLING";

constexpr const char *const apszTIOptions[] = {MD_RESX,
                                               MD_RESY,
                                               MD_BAND_COUNT,
                                               MD_DATA_TYPE,
                                               MD_NODATA,
                                               MD_MINX,
                                               MD_MINY,
                                               MD_MAXX,
                                               MD_MAXY,
                                               MD_GEOTRANSFORM,
                                               MD_XSIZE,
                                               MD_YSIZE,
                                               MD_COLOR_INTERPRETATION,
                                               MD_SRS,
                                               MD_LOCATION_FIELD,
                                               MD_SORT_FIELD,
                                               MD_SORT_FIELD_ASC,
                                               MD_BLOCK_X_SIZE,
                                               MD_BLOCK_Y_SIZE,
                                               MD_MASK_BAND,
                                               MD_RESAMPLING};

constexpr const char *const MD_BAND_OFFSET = "OFFSET";
constexpr const char *const MD_BAND_SCALE = "SCALE";
constexpr const char *const MD_BAND_UNITTYPE = "UNITTYPE";
constexpr const char *const apszReservedBandItems[] = {
    MD_BAND_OFFSET, MD_BAND_SCALE, MD_BAND_UNITTYPE};

constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BANDCOUNT = "BandCount";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_DATATYPE = "DataType";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_NODATAVALUE = "NoDataValue";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_COLORINTERP = "ColorInterp";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_LOCATIONFIELD = "LocationField";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_SORTFIELD = "SortField";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_SORTFIELDASC = "SortFieldAsc";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_MASKBAND = "MaskBand";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_ELEMENT = "Overview";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_DATASET = "Dataset";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_LAYER = "Layer";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_FACTOR = "Factor";

constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_ELEMENT = "Band";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_NUMBER = "band";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_DATATYPE = "dataType";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_DESCRIPTION = "Description";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_OFFSET = "Offset";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_SCALE = "Scale";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_NODATAVALUE = "NoDataValue";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_UNITTYPE = "UnitType";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_BAND_COLORINTERP = "ColorInterp";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_CATEGORYNAMES = "CategoryNames";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_COLORTABLE = "ColorTable";
constexpr const char *GTI_XML_RAT = "GDALRasterAttributeTable";

/************************************************************************/
/*                           ENDS_WITH_CI()                             */
/************************************************************************/

static inline bool ENDS_WITH_CI(const char *a, const char *b)
{
    return strlen(a) >= strlen(b) && EQUAL(a + strlen(a) - strlen(b), b);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                       GDALTileIndexDataset                           */
/************************************************************************/

class GDALTileIndexBand;

class GDALTileIndexDataset final : public GDALPamDataset
{
  public:
    GDALTileIndexDataset();
    ~GDALTileIndexDataset() override;

    bool Open(GDALOpenInfo *poOpenInfo);

    CPLErr FlushCache(bool bAtClosing) override;

    CPLErr GetGeoTransform(double *padfGeoTransform) override;
    const OGRSpatialReference *GetSpatialRef() const override;

    CPLErr IRasterIO(GDALRWFlag eRWFlag, int nXOff, int nYOff, int nXSize,
                     int nYSize, void *pData, int nBufXSize, int nBufYSize,
                     GDALDataType eBufType, int nBandCount,
                     BANDMAP_TYPE panBandMap, GSpacing nPixelSpace,
                     GSpacing nLineSpace, GSpacing nBandSpace,
                     GDALRasterIOExtraArg *psExtraArg) override;

    const char *GetMetadataItem(const char *pszName,
                                const char *pszDomain) override;
    CPLErr SetMetadataItem(const char *pszName, const char *pszValue,
                           const char *pszDomain) override;
    CPLErr SetMetadata(char **papszMD, const char *pszDomain) override;

    void LoadOverviews();

    std::vector<GTISourceDesc> GetSourcesMoreRecentThan(int64_t mTime);

  private:
    friend class GDALTileIndexBand;

    //! Optional GTI XML
    CPLXMLTreeCloser m_psXMLTree{nullptr};

    //! Whether the GTI XML might be modified (by SetMetadata/SetMetadataItem)
    bool m_bXMLUpdatable = false;

    //! Whether the GTI XML has been modified (by SetMetadata/SetMetadataItem)
    bool m_bXMLModified = false;

    //! Unique string (without the process) for this tile index. Passed to
    //! GDALProxyPoolDataset to ensure that sources are unique for a given owner
    const std::string m_osUniqueHandle;

    //! Vector dataset with the sources
    std::unique_ptr<GDALDataset> m_poVectorDS{};

    //! Vector layer with the sources
    OGRLayer *m_poLayer = nullptr;

    //! When the SRS of m_poLayer is not the one we expose
    std::unique_ptr<OGRLayer> m_poWarpedLayerKeeper{};

    //! Geotransform matrix of the tile index
    std::array<double, 6> m_adfGeoTransform{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0};

    //! Index of the "location" (or alternate name given by user) field
    //! (within m_poLayer->GetLayerDefn()), that contain source dataset names.
    int m_nLocationFieldIndex = -1;

    //! SRS of the tile index.
    OGRSpatialReference m_oSRS{};

    //! Cache from dataset name to dataset handle.
    //! Note that the dataset objects are ultimately GDALProxyPoolDataset,
    //! and that the GDALProxyPoolDataset limits the number of simultaneously
    //! opened real datasets (controlled by GDAL_MAX_DATASET_POOL_SIZE). Hence 500 is not too big.
    lru11::Cache<std::string, std::shared_ptr<GDALDataset>> m_oMapSharedSources{
        500};

    //! Mask band (e.g. for JPEG compressed + mask band)
    std::unique_ptr<GDALTileIndexBand> m_poMaskBand{};

    //! Whether all bands of the tile index have the same data type.
    bool m_bSameDataType = true;

    //! Whether all bands of the tile index have the same nodata value.
    bool m_bSameNoData = true;

    //! Minimum X of the current pixel request, in georeferenced units.
    double m_dfLastMinXFilter = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();

    //! Minimum Y of the current pixel request, in georeferenced units.
    double m_dfLastMinYFilter = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();

    //! Maximum X of the current pixel request, in georeferenced units.
    double m_dfLastMaxXFilter = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();

    //! Maximum Y of the current pixel request, in georeferenced units.
    double m_dfLastMaxYFilter = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();

    //! Index of the field (within m_poLayer->GetLayerDefn()) used to sort, or -1 if none.
    int m_nSortFieldIndex = -1;

    //! Whether sorting must be ascending (true) or descending (false).
    bool m_bSortFieldAsc = true;

    //! Resampling method by default for warping or when a source has not
    //! the same resolution as the tile index.
    std::string m_osResampling = "near";
    GDALRIOResampleAlg m_eResampling = GRIORA_NearestNeighbour;

    //! WKT2 representation of the tile index SRS (if needed, typically for on-the-fly warping).
    std::string m_osWKT{};

    //! Whether we had to open of the sources at tile index opening.
    bool m_bScannedOneFeatureAtOpening = false;

    //! Array of overview descriptors.
    //! Each descriptor is a tuple (dataset_name, concatenated_open_options, layer_name, overview_factor).
    std::vector<std::tuple<std::string, CPLStringList, std::string, double>>
        m_aoOverviewDescriptor{};

    //! Array of overview datasets.
    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<GDALDataset>> m_apoOverviews{};

    //! Cache of buffers used by VRTComplexSource to avoid memory reallocation.
    VRTSource::WorkingState m_oWorkingState{};

    //! Used by IRasterIO() when using multi-threading
    struct QueueWorkingStates
    {
        std::mutex oMutex{};
        std::vector<std::unique_ptr<VRTSource::WorkingState>> oStates{};
    };

    //! Used by IRasterIO() when using multi-threading
    QueueWorkingStates m_oQueueWorkingStates{};

    //! Structure describing one of the source raster in the tile index.
    struct SourceDesc
    {
        //! Source dataset name.
        std::string osName{};

        //! Source dataset handle.
        std::shared_ptr<GDALDataset> poDS{};

        //! VRTSimpleSource or VRTComplexSource for the source.
        std::unique_ptr<VRTSimpleSource> poSource{};

        //! OGRFeature corresponding to the source in the tile index.
        std::unique_ptr<OGRFeature> poFeature{};

        //! Work buffer containing the value of the mask band for the current pixel query.
        mutable std::vector<GByte> abyMask{};

        //! Whether the source covers the whole area of interest of the current pixel query.
        bool bCoversWholeAOI = false;

        //! Whether the source has a nodata value at least in one of its band.
        bool bHasNoData = false;

        //! Whether all bands of the source have the same nodata value.
        bool bSameNoData = false;

        //! Nodata value of all bands (when bSameNoData == true).
        double dfSameNoData = 0;

        //! Mask band of the source.
        GDALRasterBand *poMaskBand = nullptr;
    };

    //! Array of sources participating to the current pixel query.
    std::vector<SourceDesc> m_aoSourceDesc{};

    //! Maximum number of threads. Updated by CollectSources().
    int m_nNumThreads = -1;

    //! Whereas the multi-threading rendering code path must be used. Updated by CollectSources().
    bool m_bLastMustUseMultiThreading = false;

    //! From a source dataset name, return its SourceDesc description structure.
    bool GetSourceDesc(const std::string &osTileName, SourceDesc &oSourceDesc,
                       std::mutex *pMutex);

    //! Collect sources corresponding to the georeferenced window of interest,
    //! and store them in m_aoSourceDesc[].
    bool CollectSources(double dfXOff, double dfYOff, double dfXSize,
                        double dfYSize, bool bMultiThreadAllowed);

    //! Sort sources according to m_nSortFieldIndex.
    void SortSourceDesc();

    //! Whether the output buffer needs to be nodata initialized, or if
    //! sources are fully covering it.
    bool NeedInitBuffer(int nBandCount, const int *panBandMap) const;

    //! Nodata initialize the output buffer.
    void InitBuffer(void *pData, int nBufXSize, int nBufYSize,
                    GDALDataType eBufType, int nBandCount,
                    const int *panBandMap, GSpacing nPixelSpace,
                    GSpacing nLineSpace, GSpacing nBandSpace) const;

    //! Render one source. Used by IRasterIO()
    CPLErr RenderSource(const SourceDesc &oSourceDesc, bool bNeedInitBuffer,
                        int nBandNrMax, int nXOff, int nYOff, int nXSize,
                        int nYSize, double dfXOff, double dfYOff,
                        double dfXSize, double dfYSize, int nBufXSize,
                        int nBufYSize, void *pData, GDALDataType eBufType,
                        int nBandCount, BANDMAP_TYPE panBandMap,
                        GSpacing nPixelSpace, GSpacing nLineSpace,
                        GSpacing nBandSpace, GDALRasterIOExtraArg *psExtraArg,
                        VRTSource::WorkingState &oWorkingState) const;

    //! Whether m_poVectorDS supports SetMetadata()/SetMetadataItem()
    bool TileIndexSupportsEditingLayerMetadata() const;

    //! Return number of threads that can be used
    int GetNumThreads() const;

    /** Structure used to declare a threaded job to satisfy IRasterIO()
     * on a given source.
     */
    struct RasterIOJob
    {
        std::atomic<int> *pnCompletedJobs = nullptr;
        std::atomic<bool> *pbSuccess = nullptr;
        GDALTileIndexDataset *poDS = nullptr;
        GDALTileIndexDataset::QueueWorkingStates *poQueueWorkingStates =
            nullptr;
        int nBandNrMax = 0;
        std::string *posErrorMsg = nullptr;

        int nXOff = 0;
        int nYOff = 0;
        int nXSize = 0;
        int nYSize = 0;
        void *pData = nullptr;
        int nBufXSize = 0;
        int nBufYSize = 0;
        int nBandCount = 0;
        BANDMAP_TYPE panBandMap = nullptr;
        GDALDataType eBufType = GDT_Unknown;
        GSpacing nPixelSpace = 0;
        GSpacing nLineSpace = 0;
        GSpacing nBandSpace = 0;
        GDALRasterIOExtraArg *psExtraArg = nullptr;

        std::string osTileName{};

        static void Func(void *pData);
    };

    CPL_DISALLOW_COPY_ASSIGN(GDALTileIndexDataset)
};

/************************************************************************/
/*                            GDALTileIndexBand                          */
/************************************************************************/

class GDALTileIndexBand final : public GDALPamRasterBand
{
  public:
    GDALTileIndexBand(GDALTileIndexDataset *poDSIn, int nBandIn,
                      GDALDataType eDT, int nBlockXSizeIn, int nBlockYSizeIn);

    double GetNoDataValue(int *pbHasNoData) override
    {
        if (pbHasNoData)
            *pbHasNoData = m_bNoDataValueSet;
        return m_dfNoDataValue;
    }

    GDALColorInterp GetColorInterpretation() override
    {
        return m_eColorInterp;
    }

    CPLErr IReadBlock(int nBlockXOff, int nBlockYOff, void *pData) override;

    CPLErr IRasterIO(GDALRWFlag eRWFlag, int nXOff, int nYOff, int nXSize,
                     int nYSize, void *pData, int nBufXSize, int nBufYSize,
                     GDALDataType eBufType, GSpacing nPixelSpace,
                     GSpacing nLineSpace,
                     GDALRasterIOExtraArg *psExtraArg) override;

    int IGetDataCoverageStatus(int nXOff, int nYOff, int nXSize, int nYSize,
                               int nMaskFlagStop, double *pdfDataPct) override;

    int GetMaskFlags() override
    {
        if (m_poDS->m_poMaskBand && m_poDS->m_poMaskBand.get() != this)
            return GMF_PER_DATASET;
        return GDALPamRasterBand::GetMaskFlags();
    }

    GDALRasterBand *GetMaskBand() override
    {
        if (m_poDS->m_poMaskBand && m_poDS->m_poMaskBand.get() != this)
            return m_poDS->m_poMaskBand.get();
        return GDALPamRasterBand::GetMaskBand();
    }

    double GetOffset(int *pbHasValue) override
    {
        int bHasValue = FALSE;
        double dfVal = GDALPamRasterBand::GetOffset(&bHasValue);
        if (bHasValue)
        {
            if (pbHasValue)
                *pbHasValue = true;
            return dfVal;
        }
        if (pbHasValue)
            *pbHasValue = !std::isnan(m_dfOffset);
        return std::isnan(m_dfOffset) ? 0.0 : m_dfOffset;
    }

    double GetScale(int *pbHasValue) override
    {
        int bHasValue = FALSE;
        double dfVal = GDALPamRasterBand::GetScale(&bHasValue);
        if (bHasValue)
        {
            if (pbHasValue)
                *pbHasValue = true;
            return dfVal;
        }
        if (pbHasValue)
            *pbHasValue = !std::isnan(m_dfScale);
        return std::isnan(m_dfScale) ? 1.0 : m_dfScale;
    }

    const char *GetUnitType() override
    {
        const char *pszVal = GDALPamRasterBand::GetUnitType();
        if (pszVal && *pszVal)
            return pszVal;
        return m_osUnit.c_str();
    }

    char **GetCategoryNames() override
    {
        return m_aosCategoryNames.List();
    }

    GDALColorTable *GetColorTable() override
    {
        return m_poColorTable.get();
    }

    GDALRasterAttributeTable *GetDefaultRAT() override
    {
        return m_poRAT.get();
    }

    int GetOverviewCount() override;
    GDALRasterBand *GetOverview(int iOvr) override;

    char **GetMetadataDomainList() override;
    const char *GetMetadataItem(const char *pszName,
                                const char *pszDomain) override;
    CPLErr SetMetadataItem(const char *pszName, const char *pszValue,
                           const char *pszDomain) override;
    CPLErr SetMetadata(char **papszMD, const char *pszDomain) override;

  private:
    friend class GDALTileIndexDataset;

    //! Dataset that owns this band.
    GDALTileIndexDataset *m_poDS = nullptr;

    //! Whether a nodata value is set to this band.
    bool m_bNoDataValueSet = false;

    //! Nodata value.
    double m_dfNoDataValue = 0;

    //! Color interpretation.
    GDALColorInterp m_eColorInterp = GCI_Undefined;

    //! Cached value for GetMetadataItem("Pixel_X_Y", "LocationInfo").
    std::string m_osLastLocationInfo{};

    //! Scale value (returned by GetScale())
    double m_dfScale = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();

    //! Offset value (returned by GetOffset())
    double m_dfOffset = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();

    //! Unit type (returned by GetUnitType()).
    std::string m_osUnit{};

    //! Category names (returned by GetCategoryNames()).
    CPLStringList m_aosCategoryNames{};

    //! Color table (returned by GetColorTable()).
    std::unique_ptr<GDALColorTable> m_poColorTable{};

    //! Raster attribute table (returned by GetDefaultRAT()).
    std::unique_ptr<GDALRasterAttributeTable> m_poRAT{};

    CPL_DISALLOW_COPY_ASSIGN(GDALTileIndexBand)
};

/************************************************************************/
/*                        IsSameNaNAware()                              */
/************************************************************************/

static inline bool IsSameNaNAware(double a, double b)
{
    return a == b || (std::isnan(a) && std::isnan(b));
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                         GDALTileIndexDataset()                        */
/************************************************************************/

GDALTileIndexDataset::GDALTileIndexDataset()
    : m_osUniqueHandle(CPLSPrintf("%p", this))
{
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        GetAbsoluteFileName()                         */
/************************************************************************/

static std::string GetAbsoluteFileName(const char *pszTileName,
                                       const char *pszVRTName)
{
    if (STARTS_WITH(pszTileName, "https://"))
        return std::string("/vsicurl/").append(pszTileName);

    if (CPLIsFilenameRelative(pszTileName) &&
        !STARTS_WITH(pszTileName, "<VRTDataset") &&
        !STARTS_WITH(pszVRTName, "<GDALTileIndexDataset"))
    {
        const auto oSubDSInfo(GDALGetSubdatasetInfo(pszTileName));
        if (oSubDSInfo && !oSubDSInfo->GetPathComponent().empty())
        {
            const std::string osPath(oSubDSInfo->GetPathComponent());
            const std::string osRet =
                CPLIsFilenameRelative(osPath.c_str())
                    ? oSubDSInfo->ModifyPathComponent(
                          CPLProjectRelativeFilename(CPLGetPath(pszVRTName),
                                                     osPath.c_str()))
                    : std::string(pszTileName);
            GDALDestroySubdatasetInfo(oSubDSInfo);
            return osRet;
        }

        const std::string osRelativeMadeAbsolute =
            CPLProjectRelativeFilename(CPLGetPath(pszVRTName), pszTileName);
        VSIStatBufL sStat;
        if (VSIStatL(osRelativeMadeAbsolute.c_str(), &sStat) == 0)
            return osRelativeMadeAbsolute;
    }
    return pszTileName;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                    GTIDoPaletteExpansionIfNeeded()                   */
/************************************************************************/

//! Do palette -> RGB(A) expansion
static bool
GTIDoPaletteExpansionIfNeeded(std::shared_ptr<GDALDataset> &poTileDS,
                              int nBandCount)
{
    if (poTileDS->GetRasterCount() == 1 &&
        (nBandCount == 3 || nBandCount == 4) &&
        poTileDS->GetRasterBand(1)->GetColorTable() != nullptr)
    {

        CPLStringList aosOptions;
        aosOptions.AddString("-of");
        aosOptions.AddString("VRT");

        aosOptions.AddString("-expand");
        aosOptions.AddString(nBandCount == 3 ? "rgb" : "rgba");

        GDALTranslateOptions *psOptions =
            GDALTranslateOptionsNew(aosOptions.List(), nullptr);
        int bUsageError = false;
        auto poRGBDS = std::unique_ptr<GDALDataset>(GDALDataset::FromHandle(
            GDALTranslate("", GDALDataset::ToHandle(poTileDS.get()), psOptions,
                          &bUsageError)));
        GDALTranslateOptionsFree(psOptions);
        if (!poRGBDS)
        {
            return false;
        }

        poTileDS.reset(poRGBDS.release());
    }
    return true;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                                Open()                                */
/************************************************************************/

bool GDALTileIndexDataset::Open(GDALOpenInfo *poOpenInfo)
{
    eAccess = poOpenInfo->eAccess;

    CPLXMLNode *psRoot = nullptr;
    const char *pszIndexDataset = poOpenInfo->pszFilename;

    if (STARTS_WITH(poOpenInfo->pszFilename, GTI_PREFIX))
    {
        pszIndexDataset = poOpenInfo->pszFilename + strlen(GTI_PREFIX);
    }
    else if (STARTS_WITH(poOpenInfo->pszFilename, "<GDALTileIndexDataset"))
    {
        // CPLParseXMLString() emits an error in case of failure
        m_psXMLTree.reset(CPLParseXMLString(poOpenInfo->pszFilename));
        if (m_psXMLTree == nullptr)
            return false;
    }
    else if (poOpenInfo->nHeaderBytes > 0 &&
             strstr(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(poOpenInfo->pabyHeader),
                    "<GDALTileIndexDataset"))
    {
        // CPLParseXMLFile() emits an error in case of failure
        m_psXMLTree.reset(CPLParseXMLFile(poOpenInfo->pszFilename));
        if (m_psXMLTree == nullptr)
            return false;
        m_bXMLUpdatable = (poOpenInfo->eAccess == GA_Update);
    }

    if (m_psXMLTree)
    {
        psRoot = CPLGetXMLNode(m_psXMLTree.get(), "=GDALTileIndexDataset");
        if (psRoot == nullptr)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Missing GDALTileIndexDataset root element.");
            return false;
        }

        pszIndexDataset = CPLGetXMLValue(psRoot, "IndexDataset", nullptr);
        if (!pszIndexDataset)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Missing IndexDataset element.");
            return false;
        }
    }

    if (ENDS_WITH_CI(pszIndexDataset, ".gti.gpkg") &&
        poOpenInfo->nHeaderBytes >= 100 &&
        STARTS_WITH(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(poOpenInfo->pabyHeader),
                    "SQLite format 3"))
    {
        const char *const apszAllowedDrivers[] = {"GPKG", nullptr};
        m_poVectorDS.reset(GDALDataset::Open(
            std::string("GPKG:\"").append(pszIndexDataset).append("\"").c_str(),
            GDAL_OF_VECTOR | GDAL_OF_RASTER | GDAL_OF_VERBOSE_ERROR |
                ((poOpenInfo->nOpenFlags & GDAL_OF_UPDATE) ? GDAL_OF_UPDATE
                                                           : GDAL_OF_READONLY),
            apszAllowedDrivers));
        if (!m_poVectorDS)
        {
            return false;
        }
        if (m_poVectorDS->GetLayerCount() == 0 &&
            (m_poVectorDS->GetRasterCount() != 0 ||
             m_poVectorDS->GetMetadata("SUBDATASETS") != nullptr))
        {
            return false;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        m_poVectorDS.reset(GDALDataset::Open(
            pszIndexDataset, GDAL_OF_VECTOR | GDAL_OF_VERBOSE_ERROR |
                                 ((poOpenInfo->nOpenFlags & GDAL_OF_UPDATE)
                                      ? GDAL_OF_UPDATE
                                      : GDAL_OF_READONLY)));
        if (!m_poVectorDS)
        {
            return false;
        }
    }

    if (m_poVectorDS->GetLayerCount() == 0)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "%s has no vector layer",
                 poOpenInfo->pszFilename);
        return false;
    }

    double dfOvrFactor = 1.0;
    if (const char *pszFactor =
            CSLFetchNameValue(poOpenInfo->papszOpenOptions, "FACTOR"))
    {
        dfOvrFactor = CPLAtof(pszFactor);
        if (!(dfOvrFactor > 1.0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Wrong overview factor");
            return false;
        }
    }

    const char *pszLayerName;

    if ((pszLayerName = CSLFetchNameValue(poOpenInfo->papszOpenOptions,
                                          "LAYER")) != nullptr)
    {
        m_poLayer = m_poVectorDS->GetLayerByName(pszLayerName);
        if (!m_poLayer)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Layer %s does not exist",
                     pszLayerName);
            return false;
        }
    }
    else if (psRoot && (pszLayerName = CPLGetXMLValue(psRoot, "IndexLayer",
                                                      nullptr)) != nullptr)
    {
        m_poLayer = m_poVectorDS->GetLayerByName(pszLayerName);
        if (!m_poLayer)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Layer %s does not exist",
                     pszLayerName);
            return false;
        }
    }
    else if (!psRoot && (pszLayerName = m_poVectorDS->GetMetadataItem(
                             MD_DS_TILE_INDEX_LAYER)) != nullptr)
    {
        m_poLayer = m_poVectorDS->GetLayerByName(pszLayerName);
        if (!m_poLayer)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Layer %s does not exist",
                     pszLayerName);
            return false;
        }
    }
    else if (m_poVectorDS->GetLayerCount() == 1)
    {
        m_poLayer = m_poVectorDS->GetLayer(0);
        if (!m_poLayer)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Cannot open layer 0");
            return false;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        if (STARTS_WITH(poOpenInfo->pszFilename, GTI_PREFIX))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "%s has more than one layer. LAYER open option "
                     "must be defined to specify which one to "
                     "use as the tile index",
                     pszIndexDataset);
        }
        else if (psRoot)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "%s has more than one layer. IndexLayer element must be "
                     "defined to specify which one to "
                     "use as the tile index",
                     pszIndexDataset);
        }
        else
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "%s has more than one layer. %s "
                     "metadata item must be defined to specify which one to "
                     "use as the tile index",
                     pszIndexDataset, MD_DS_TILE_INDEX_LAYER);
        }
        return false;
    }

    // Try to get the metadata from an embedded xml:GTI domain
    if (!m_psXMLTree)
    {
        char **papszMD = m_poLayer->GetMetadata("xml:GTI");
        if (papszMD && papszMD[0])
        {
            m_psXMLTree.reset(CPLParseXMLString(papszMD[0]));
            if (m_psXMLTree == nullptr)
                return false;

            psRoot = CPLGetXMLNode(m_psXMLTree.get(), "=GDALTileIndexDataset");
            if (psRoot == nullptr)
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                         "Missing GDALTileIndexDataset root element.");
                return false;
            }
        }
    }

    // Get the value of an option.
    // The order of lookup is the following one (first to last):
    // - open options
    // - XML file
    // - Layer metadata items.
    const auto GetOption = [poOpenInfo, psRoot, this](const char *pszItem)
    {
        const char *pszVal =
            CSLFetchNameValue(poOpenInfo->papszOpenOptions, pszItem);
        if (pszVal)
            return pszVal;

        if (psRoot)
        {
            pszVal = CPLGetXMLValue(psRoot, pszItem, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
                return pszVal;

            if (EQUAL(pszItem, MD_BAND_COUNT))
                pszItem = GTI_XML_BANDCOUNT;
            else if (EQUAL(pszItem, MD_DATA_TYPE))
                pszItem = GTI_XML_DATATYPE;
            else if (EQUAL(pszItem, MD_NODATA))
                pszItem = GTI_XML_NODATAVALUE;
            else if (EQUAL(pszItem, MD_COLOR_INTERPRETATION))
                pszItem = GTI_XML_COLORINTERP;
            else if (EQUAL(pszItem, MD_LOCATION_FIELD))
                pszItem = GTI_XML_LOCATIONFIELD;
            else if (EQUAL(pszItem, MD_SORT_FIELD))
                pszItem = GTI_XML_SORTFIELD;
            else if (EQUAL(pszItem, MD_SORT_FIELD_ASC))
                pszItem = GTI_XML_SORTFIELDASC;
            else if (EQUAL(pszItem, MD_MASK_BAND))
                pszItem = GTI_XML_MASKBAND;
            pszVal = CPLGetXMLValue(psRoot, pszItem, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
                return pszVal;
        }

        return m_poLayer->GetMetadataItem(pszItem);
    };

    const char *pszFilter = GetOption("Filter");
    if (pszFilter)
    {
        if (m_poLayer->SetAttributeFilter(pszFilter) != OGRERR_NONE)
            return false;
    }

    const OGRFeatureDefn *poLayerDefn = m_poLayer->GetLayerDefn();

    std::string osLocationFieldName;
    {
        const char *pszLocationFieldName = GetOption(MD_LOCATION_FIELD);
        if (pszLocationFieldName)
        {
            osLocationFieldName = pszLocationFieldName;
        }
        else
        {
            // Is this a https://stac-utils.github.io/stac-geoparquet/latest/spec/stac-geoparquet-spec ?
            if (poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex("assets.data.href") >= 0)
            {
                osLocationFieldName = "assets.data.href";
                CPLDebug("GTI", "Using %s as location field",
                         osLocationFieldName.c_str());
            }
            else if (poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex("assets.image.href") >= 0)
            {
                osLocationFieldName = "assets.image.href";
                CPLDebug("GTI", "Using %s as location field",
                         osLocationFieldName.c_str());
            }
            else if (poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex("stac_version") >= 0)
            {
                const int nFieldCount = poLayerDefn->GetFieldCount();
                // Look for "assets.xxxxx.href" fields
                int nAssetCount = 0;
                for (int i = 0; i < nFieldCount; ++i)
                {
                    const auto poFDefn = poLayerDefn->GetFieldDefn(i);
                    const char *pszFieldName = poFDefn->GetNameRef();
                    if (STARTS_WITH(pszFieldName, "assets.") &&
                        EQUAL(pszFieldName + strlen(pszFieldName) -
                                  strlen(".href"),
                              ".href") &&
                        // Assets with "metadata" in them are very much likely
                        // not rasters... We could potentially confirm that by
                        // inspecting the value of the assets.XXX.type or
                        // assets.XXX.roles fields of one feature
                        !strstr(pszFieldName, "metadata"))
                    {
                        ++nAssetCount;
                        if (!osLocationFieldName.empty())
                        {
                            osLocationFieldName += ", ";
                        }
                        osLocationFieldName += pszFieldName;
                    }
                }
                if (nAssetCount > 1)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Several potential STAC assets. Please select one "
                             "among %s with the LOCATION_FIELD open option",
                             osLocationFieldName.c_str());
                    return false;
                }
                else if (nAssetCount == 0)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "File has stac_version property but lacks assets");
                    return false;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                constexpr const char *DEFAULT_LOCATION_FIELD_NAME = "location";
                osLocationFieldName = DEFAULT_LOCATION_FIELD_NAME;
            }
        }
    }

    m_nLocationFieldIndex =
        poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex(osLocationFieldName.c_str());
    if (m_nLocationFieldIndex < 0)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Cannot find field %s",
                 osLocationFieldName.c_str());
        return false;
    }
    if (poLayerDefn->GetFieldDefn(m_nLocationFieldIndex)->GetType() !=
        OFTString)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Field %s is not of type string",
                 osLocationFieldName.c_str());
        return false;
    }

    const char *pszSortFieldName = GetOption(MD_SORT_FIELD);
    if (pszSortFieldName)
    {
        m_nSortFieldIndex = poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex(pszSortFieldName);
        if (m_nSortFieldIndex < 0)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Cannot find field %s",
                     pszSortFieldName);
            return false;
        }

        const auto eFieldType =
            poLayerDefn->GetFieldDefn(m_nSortFieldIndex)->GetType();
        if (eFieldType != OFTString && eFieldType != OFTInteger &&
            eFieldType != OFTInteger64 && eFieldType != OFTReal &&
            eFieldType != OFTDate && eFieldType != OFTDateTime)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Unsupported type for field %s", pszSortFieldName);
            return false;
        }

        const char *pszSortFieldAsc = GetOption(MD_SORT_FIELD_ASC);
        if (pszSortFieldAsc)
        {
            m_bSortFieldAsc = CPLTestBool(pszSortFieldAsc);
        }
    }

    const char *pszResX = GetOption(MD_RESX);
    const char *pszResY = GetOption(MD_RESY);
    if (pszResX && !pszResY)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "%s metadata item defined, but not %s", MD_RESX, MD_RESY);
        return false;
    }
    if (!pszResX && pszResY)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "%s metadata item defined, but not %s", MD_RESY, MD_RESX);
        return false;
    }

    const char *pszResampling = GetOption(MD_RESAMPLING);
    if (pszResampling)
    {
        const auto nErrorCountBefore = CPLGetErrorCounter();
        m_eResampling = GDALRasterIOGetResampleAlg(pszResampling);
        if (nErrorCountBefore != CPLGetErrorCounter())
        {
            return false;
        }
        m_osResampling = pszResampling;
    }

    const char *pszMinX = GetOption(MD_MINX);
    const char *pszMinY = GetOption(MD_MINY);
    const char *pszMaxX = GetOption(MD_MAXX);
    const char *pszMaxY = GetOption(MD_MAXY);
    int nCountMinMaxXY = (pszMinX ? 1 : 0) + (pszMinY ? 1 : 0) +
                         (pszMaxX ? 1 : 0) + (pszMaxY ? 1 : 0);
    if (nCountMinMaxXY != 0 && nCountMinMaxXY != 4)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "None or all of %s, %s, %s and %s must be specified", MD_MINX,
                 MD_MINY, MD_MAXX, MD_MAXY);
        return false;
    }

    const char *pszXSize = GetOption(MD_XSIZE);
    const char *pszYSize = GetOption(MD_YSIZE);
    const char *pszGeoTransform = GetOption(MD_GEOTRANSFORM);
    const int nCountXSizeYSizeGT =
        (pszXSize ? 1 : 0) + (pszYSize ? 1 : 0) + (pszGeoTransform ? 1 : 0);
    if (nCountXSizeYSizeGT != 0 && nCountXSizeYSizeGT != 3)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "None or all of %s, %s, %s must be specified", MD_XSIZE,
                 MD_YSIZE, MD_GEOTRANSFORM);
        return false;
    }

    const char *pszDataType = GetOption(MD_DATA_TYPE);
    const char *pszColorInterp = GetOption(MD_COLOR_INTERPRETATION);
    int nBandCount = 0;
    std::vector<GDALDataType> aeDataTypes;
    std::vector<std::pair<bool, double>> aNoData;
    std::vector<GDALColorInterp> aeColorInterp;

    const char *pszSRS = GetOption(MD_SRS);
    m_oSRS.SetAxisMappingStrategy(OAMS_TRADITIONAL_GIS_ORDER);
    if (pszSRS)
    {
        if (m_oSRS.SetFromUserInput(
                pszSRS,
                OGRSpatialReference::SET_FROM_USER_INPUT_LIMITATIONS_get()) !=
            OGRERR_NONE)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Invalid %s", MD_SRS);
            return false;
        }
    }
    else if (const auto poSRS = m_poLayer->GetSpatialRef())
    {
        // Ignore GPKG "Undefined geographic SRS" and "Undefined Cartesian SRS"
        if (!STARTS_WITH(poSRS->GetName(), "Undefined "))
            m_oSRS = *poSRS;
    }

    std::vector<const CPLXMLNode *> apoXMLNodeBands;
    if (psRoot)
    {
        int nExpectedBandNumber = 1;
        for (const CPLXMLNode *psIter = psRoot->psChild; psIter;
             psIter = psIter->psNext)
        {
            if (psIter->eType == CXT_Element &&
                strcmp(psIter->pszValue, GTI_XML_BAND_ELEMENT) == 0)
            {
                const char *pszBand =
                    CPLGetXMLValue(psIter, GTI_XML_BAND_NUMBER, nullptr);
                if (!pszBand)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "%s attribute missing on %s element",
                             GTI_XML_BAND_NUMBER, GTI_XML_BAND_ELEMENT);
                    return false;
                }
                const int nBand = atoi(pszBand);
                if (nBand <= 0)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Invalid band number");
                    return false;
                }
                if (nBand != nExpectedBandNumber)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Invalid band number: found %d, expected %d",
                             nBand, nExpectedBandNumber);
                    return false;
                }
                apoXMLNodeBands.push_back(psIter);
                ++nExpectedBandNumber;
            }
        }
    }

    const char *pszBandCount = GetOption(MD_BAND_COUNT);
    if (pszBandCount)
        nBandCount = atoi(pszBandCount);

    if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
    {
        if (!pszBandCount)
            nBandCount = static_cast<int>(apoXMLNodeBands.size());
        else if (nBandCount != static_cast<int>(apoXMLNodeBands.size()))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Inconsistent %s with actual number of %s elements",
                     GTI_XML_BANDCOUNT, GTI_XML_BAND_ELEMENT);
            return false;
        }
    }

    // Take into STAC GeoParquet proj:code / proj:epsg / proj:wkt2 / proj:projjson
    // and proj:transform fields
    std::unique_ptr<OGRFeature> poFeature;
    std::string osResX, osResY, osMinX, osMinY, osMaxX, osMaxY;
    int iProjCode = -1;
    int iProjEPSG = -1;
    int iProjWKT2 = -1;
    int iProjPROJSON = -1;
    int iProjTransform = -1;

    const bool bIsStacGeoParquet =
        STARTS_WITH(osLocationFieldName.c_str(), "assets.") &&
        EQUAL(osLocationFieldName.c_str() + osLocationFieldName.size() -
                  strlen(".href"),
              ".href");
    std::string osAssetName;
    if (bIsStacGeoParquet)
    {
        osAssetName = osLocationFieldName.substr(
            strlen("assets."),
            osLocationFieldName.size() - strlen("assets.") - strlen(".href"));
    }

    const auto GetAssetFieldIndex =
        [poLayerDefn, &osAssetName](const char *pszFieldName)
    {
        const int idx = poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex(
            CPLSPrintf("assets.%s.%s", osAssetName.c_str(), pszFieldName));
        if (idx >= 0)
            return idx;
        return poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex(pszFieldName);
    };

    if (bIsStacGeoParquet && !pszSRS && !pszResX && !pszResY && !pszMinX &&
        !pszMinY && !pszMaxX && !pszMaxY &&
        ((iProjCode = GetAssetFieldIndex("proj:code")) >= 0 ||
         (iProjEPSG = GetAssetFieldIndex("proj:epsg")) >= 0 ||
         (iProjWKT2 = GetAssetFieldIndex("proj:wkt2")) >= 0 ||
         (iProjPROJSON = GetAssetFieldIndex("proj:projjson")) >= 0) &&
        ((iProjTransform = GetAssetFieldIndex("proj:transform")) >= 0))
    {
        poFeature.reset(m_poLayer->GetNextFeature());
        const auto poProjTransformField =
            poLayerDefn->GetFieldDefn(iProjTransform);
        if (poFeature &&
            ((iProjCode >= 0 && poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjCode)) ||
             (iProjEPSG >= 0 && poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjEPSG)) ||
             (iProjWKT2 >= 0 && poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjWKT2)) ||
             (iProjPROJSON >= 0 && poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjPROJSON))) &&
            poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjTransform) &&
            (poProjTransformField->GetType() == OFTRealList ||
             poProjTransformField->GetType() == OFTIntegerList ||
             poProjTransformField->GetType() == OFTInteger64List))
        {
            OGRSpatialReference oSTACSRS;
            oSTACSRS.SetAxisMappingStrategy(OAMS_TRADITIONAL_GIS_ORDER);

            if (iProjCode >= 0 && poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjCode))
                oSTACSRS.SetFromUserInput(
                    poFeature->GetFieldAsString(iProjCode),
                    OGRSpatialReference::SET_FROM_USER_INPUT_LIMITATIONS_get());

            else if (iProjEPSG >= 0 && poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjEPSG))
                oSTACSRS.importFromEPSG(
                    poFeature->GetFieldAsInteger(iProjEPSG));

            else if (iProjWKT2 >= 0 && poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjWKT2))
                oSTACSRS.SetFromUserInput(
                    poFeature->GetFieldAsString(iProjWKT2),
                    OGRSpatialReference::SET_FROM_USER_INPUT_LIMITATIONS_get());

            else if (iProjPROJSON >= 0 && poFeature->IsFieldSet(iProjPROJSON))
                oSTACSRS.SetFromUserInput(
                    poFeature->GetFieldAsString(iProjPROJSON),
                    OGRSpatialReference::SET_FROM_USER_INPUT_LIMITATIONS_get());

            if (!oSTACSRS.IsEmpty())
            {
                int nTransformCount = 0;
                double adfGeoTransform[6] = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0};
                if (poProjTransformField->GetType() == OFTRealList)
                {
                    const auto padfFeatureTransform =
                        poFeature->GetFieldAsDoubleList(iProjTransform,
                                                        &nTransformCount);
                    if (nTransformCount >= 6)
                        memcpy(adfGeoTransform, padfFeatureTransform,
                               6 * sizeof(double));
                }
                else if (poProjTransformField->GetType() == OFTInteger64List)
                {
                    const auto paFeatureTransform =
                        poFeature->GetFieldAsInteger64List(iProjTransform,
                                                           &nTransformCount);
                    if (nTransformCount >= 6)
                    {
                        for (int i = 0; i < 6; ++i)
                            adfGeoTransform[i] =
                                static_cast<double>(paFeatureTransform[i]);
                    }
                }
                else if (poProjTransformField->GetType() == OFTIntegerList)
                {
                    const auto paFeatureTransform =
                        poFeature->GetFieldAsIntegerList(iProjTransform,
                                                         &nTransformCount);
                    if (nTransformCount >= 6)
                    {
                        for (int i = 0; i < 6; ++i)
                            adfGeoTransform[i] = paFeatureTransform[i];
                    }
                }
                OGREnvelope sEnvelope;
                if (nTransformCount >= 6 && m_poLayer->GetSpatialRef() &&
                    m_poLayer->GetExtent(&sEnvelope, /* bForce = */ true) ==
                        OGRERR_NONE)
                {
                    const double dfResX = adfGeoTransform[0];
                    osResX = CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfResX);
                    const double dfResY = std::fabs(adfGeoTransform[4]);
                    osResY = CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfResY);

                    auto poCT = std::unique_ptr<OGRCoordinateTransformation>(
                        OGRCreateCoordinateTransformation(
                            m_poLayer->GetSpatialRef(), &oSTACSRS));
                    auto poInvCT = std::unique_ptr<OGRCoordinateTransformation>(
                        poCT ? poCT->GetInverse() : nullptr);
                    double dfOutMinX = 0;
                    double dfOutMinY = 0;
                    double dfOutMaxX = 0;
                    double dfOutMaxY = 0;
                    if (dfResX > 0 && dfResY > 0 && poCT && poInvCT &&
                        poCT->TransformBounds(sEnvelope.MinX, sEnvelope.MinY,
                                              sEnvelope.MaxX, sEnvelope.MaxY,
                                              &dfOutMinX, &dfOutMinY,
                                              &dfOutMaxX, &dfOutMaxY, 21))
                    {
                        constexpr double EPSILON = 1e-3;
                        const bool bTileAlignedOnRes =
                            (fmod(std::fabs(adfGeoTransform[3]), dfResX) <=
                                 EPSILON * dfResX &&
                             fmod(std::fabs(adfGeoTransform[5]), dfResY) <=
                                 EPSILON * dfResY);

                        osMinX = CPLSPrintf(
                            "%.17g",
                            !bTileAlignedOnRes
                                ? dfOutMinX
                                : std::floor(dfOutMinX / dfResX) * dfResX);
                        osMinY = CPLSPrintf(
                            "%.17g",
                            !bTileAlignedOnRes
                                ? dfOutMinY
                                : std::floor(dfOutMinY / dfResY) * dfResY);
                        osMaxX = CPLSPrintf(
                            "%.17g",
                            !bTileAlignedOnRes
                                ? dfOutMaxX
                                : std::ceil(dfOutMaxX / dfResX) * dfResX);
                        osMaxY = CPLSPrintf(
                            "%.17g",
                            !bTileAlignedOnRes
                                ? dfOutMaxY
                                : std::ceil(dfOutMaxY / dfResY) * dfResY);

                        m_oSRS = std::move(oSTACSRS);
                        pszResX = osResX.c_str();
                        pszResY = osResY.c_str();
                        pszMinX = osMinX.c_str();
                        pszMinY = osMinY.c_str();
                        pszMaxX = osMaxX.c_str();
                        pszMaxY = osMaxY.c_str();
                        nCountMinMaxXY = 4;

                        poFeature.reset();
                        m_poLayer->ResetReading();

                        m_poWarpedLayerKeeper =
                            std::make_unique<OGRWarpedLayer>(
                                m_poLayer, /* iGeomField = */ 0,
                                /* bTakeOwnership = */ false, poCT.release(),
                                poInvCT.release());
                        m_poLayer = m_poWarpedLayerKeeper.get();
                        poLayerDefn = m_poLayer->GetLayerDefn();
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }

    bool bHasMaskBand = false;
    std::unique_ptr<GDALColorTable> poSingleColorTable;
    if ((!pszBandCount && apoXMLNodeBands.empty()) ||
        (!(pszResX && pszResY) && nCountXSizeYSizeGT == 0))
    {
        CPLDebug("GTI", "Inspecting one feature due to missing metadata items");
        m_bScannedOneFeatureAtOpening = true;

        if (!poFeature)
            poFeature.reset(m_poLayer->GetNextFeature());
        if (!poFeature ||
            !poFeature->IsFieldSetAndNotNull(m_nLocationFieldIndex))
        {
            CPLError(
                CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                "BAND_COUNT(+DATA_TYPE+COLOR_INTERPRETATION)+ (RESX+RESY or "
                "XSIZE+YSIZE+GEOTRANSFORM) metadata items "
                "missing");
            return false;
        }

        const char *pszTileName =
            poFeature->GetFieldAsString(m_nLocationFieldIndex);
        const std::string osTileName(
            GetAbsoluteFileName(pszTileName, poOpenInfo->pszFilename));
        pszTileName = osTileName.c_str();

        auto poTileDS = std::shared_ptr<GDALDataset>(
            GDALDataset::Open(pszTileName,
                              GDAL_OF_RASTER | GDAL_OF_VERBOSE_ERROR),
            GDALDatasetUniquePtrReleaser());
        if (!poTileDS)
        {
            return false;
        }

        // do palette -> RGB(A) expansion if needed
        if (!GTIDoPaletteExpansionIfNeeded(poTileDS, nBandCount))
            return false;

        const int nTileBandCount = poTileDS->GetRasterCount();
        for (int i = 0; i < nTileBandCount; ++i)
        {
            auto poTileBand = poTileDS->GetRasterBand(i + 1);
            aeDataTypes.push_back(poTileBand->GetRasterDataType());
            int bHasNoData = FALSE;
            const double dfNoData = poTileBand->GetNoDataValue(&bHasNoData);
            aNoData.emplace_back(CPL_TO_BOOL(bHasNoData), dfNoData);
            aeColorInterp.push_back(poTileBand->GetColorInterpretation());
            if (nTileBandCount == 1)
            {
                if (auto poCT = poTileBand->GetColorTable())
                {
                    // We assume that this will apply to all tiles...
                    // TODO: detect if that it is really the case, and warn
                    // if not, or do approximate palette matching like
                    // done in GDALRasterBand::GetIndexColorTranslationTo()
                    poSingleColorTable.reset(poCT->Clone());
                }
            }

            if (poTileBand->GetMaskFlags() == GMF_PER_DATASET)
                bHasMaskBand = true;
        }
        if (!pszBandCount && nBandCount == 0)
            nBandCount = nTileBandCount;

        auto poTileSRS = poTileDS->GetSpatialRef();
        if (!m_oSRS.IsEmpty() && poTileSRS && !m_oSRS.IsSame(poTileSRS))
        {
            CPLStringList aosOptions;
            aosOptions.AddString("-of");
            aosOptions.AddString("VRT");

            char *pszWKT = nullptr;
            const char *const apszWKTOptions[] = {"FORMAT=WKT2_2019", nullptr};
            m_oSRS.exportToWkt(&pszWKT, apszWKTOptions);
            if (pszWKT)
                m_osWKT = pszWKT;
            CPLFree(pszWKT);

            if (m_osWKT.empty())
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                         "Cannot export VRT SRS to WKT2");
                return false;
            }

            aosOptions.AddString("-t_srs");
            aosOptions.AddString(m_osWKT.c_str());

            GDALWarpAppOptions *psWarpOptions =
                GDALWarpAppOptionsNew(aosOptions.List(), nullptr);
            GDALDatasetH ahSrcDS[] = {GDALDataset::ToHandle(poTileDS.get())};
            int bUsageError = false;
            auto poWarpDS =
                std::unique_ptr<GDALDataset>(GDALDataset::FromHandle(GDALWarp(
                    "", nullptr, 1, ahSrcDS, psWarpOptions, &bUsageError)));
            GDALWarpAppOptionsFree(psWarpOptions);
            if (!poWarpDS)
            {
                return false;
            }

            poTileDS.reset(poWarpDS.release());
            poTileSRS = poTileDS->GetSpatialRef();
            CPL_IGNORE_RET_VAL(poTileSRS);
        }

        double adfGeoTransformTile[6];
        if (poTileDS->GetGeoTransform(adfGeoTransformTile) != CE_None)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Cannot find geotransform on %s", pszTileName);
            return false;
        }
        if (!(adfGeoTransformTile[GT_ROTATION_PARAM1] == 0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "3rd value of GeoTransform of %s must be 0", pszTileName);
            return false;
        }
        if (!(adfGeoTransformTile[GT_ROTATION_PARAM2] == 0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "5th value of GeoTransform of %s must be 0", pszTileName);
            return false;
        }
        if (!(adfGeoTransformTile[GT_NS_RES] < 0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "6th value of GeoTransform of %s must be < 0",
                     pszTileName);
            return false;
        }

        const double dfResX = adfGeoTransformTile[GT_WE_RES];
        const double dfResY = -adfGeoTransformTile[GT_NS_RES];

        OGREnvelope sEnvelope;
        if (m_poLayer->GetExtent(&sEnvelope, /* bForce = */ false) ==
            OGRERR_FAILURE)
        {
            if (m_poLayer->GetExtent(&sEnvelope, /* bForce = */ true) ==
                OGRERR_FAILURE)
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                         "Cannot get layer extent");
                return false;
            }
            CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Could get layer extent, but using a slower method");
        }

        const double dfXSize = (sEnvelope.MaxX - sEnvelope.MinX) / dfResX;
        if (!(dfXSize >= 0 && dfXSize < INT_MAX))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Too small %s, or wrong layer extent", MD_RESX);
            return false;
        }

        const double dfYSize = (sEnvelope.MaxY - sEnvelope.MinY) / dfResY;
        if (!(dfYSize >= 0 && dfYSize < INT_MAX))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Too small %s, or wrong layer extent", MD_RESY);
            return false;
        }

        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X] = sEnvelope.MinX;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES] = dfResX;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_ROTATION_PARAM1] = 0;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y] = sEnvelope.MaxY;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_ROTATION_PARAM2] = 0;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES] = -dfResY;
        nRasterXSize = static_cast<int>(std::ceil(dfXSize));
        nRasterYSize = static_cast<int>(std::ceil(dfYSize));
    }

    if (pszXSize && pszYSize && pszGeoTransform)
    {
        const int nXSize = atoi(pszXSize);
        if (nXSize <= 0)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "%s metadata item must be > 0", MD_XSIZE);
            return false;
        }

        const int nYSize = atoi(pszYSize);
        if (nYSize <= 0)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "%s metadata item must be > 0", MD_YSIZE);
            return false;
        }

        const CPLStringList aosTokens(
            CSLTokenizeString2(pszGeoTransform, ",", 0));
        if (aosTokens.size() != 6)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "%s metadata item must be 6 numeric values "
                     "separated with comma",
                     MD_GEOTRANSFORM);
            return false;
        }
        for (int i = 0; i < 6; ++i)
        {
            m_adfGeoTransform[i] = CPLAtof(aosTokens[i]);
        }
        if (!(m_adfGeoTransform[GT_ROTATION_PARAM1] == 0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "3rd value of %s must be 0",
                     MD_GEOTRANSFORM);
            return false;
        }
        if (!(m_adfGeoTransform[GT_ROTATION_PARAM2] == 0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "5th value of %s must be 0",
                     MD_GEOTRANSFORM);
            return false;
        }
        if (!(m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES] < 0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "6th value of %s must be < 0",
                     MD_GEOTRANSFORM);
            return false;
        }

        nRasterXSize = nXSize;
        nRasterYSize = nYSize;
    }
    else if (pszResX && pszResY)
    {
        const double dfResX = CPLAtof(pszResX);
        if (!(dfResX > 0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "RESX metadata item must be > 0");
            return false;
        }
        const double dfResY = CPLAtof(pszResY);
        if (!(dfResY > 0))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "RESY metadata item must be > 0");
            return false;
        }

        OGREnvelope sEnvelope;

        if (nCountMinMaxXY == 4)
        {
            if (pszXSize || pszYSize || pszGeoTransform)
            {
                CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                         "Ignoring %s, %s and %s when %s, "
                         "%s, %s and %s are specified",
                         MD_XSIZE, MD_YSIZE, MD_GEOTRANSFORM, MD_MINX, MD_MINY,
                         MD_MAXX, MD_MAXY);
            }
            const double dfMinX = CPLAtof(pszMinX);
            const double dfMinY = CPLAtof(pszMinY);
            const double dfMaxX = CPLAtof(pszMaxX);
            const double dfMaxY = CPLAtof(pszMaxY);
            if (!(dfMaxX > dfMinX))
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                         "%s metadata item must be > %s", MD_MAXX, MD_MINX);
                return false;
            }
            if (!(dfMaxY > dfMinY))
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                         "%s metadata item must be > %s", MD_MAXY, MD_MINY);
                return false;
            }
            sEnvelope.MinX = dfMinX;
            sEnvelope.MinY = dfMinY;
            sEnvelope.MaxX = dfMaxX;
            sEnvelope.MaxY = dfMaxY;
        }
        else if (m_poLayer->GetExtent(&sEnvelope, /* bForce = */ false) ==
                 OGRERR_FAILURE)
        {
            if (m_poLayer->GetExtent(&sEnvelope, /* bForce = */ true) ==
                OGRERR_FAILURE)
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                         "Cannot get layer extent");
                return false;
            }
            CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Could get layer extent, but using a slower method");
        }

        const double dfXSize = (sEnvelope.MaxX - sEnvelope.MinX) / dfResX;
        if (!(dfXSize >= 0 && dfXSize < INT_MAX))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Too small %s, or wrong layer extent", MD_RESX);
            return false;
        }

        const double dfYSize = (sEnvelope.MaxY - sEnvelope.MinY) / dfResY;
        if (!(dfYSize >= 0 && dfYSize < INT_MAX))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Too small %s, or wrong layer extent", MD_RESY);
            return false;
        }

        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X] = sEnvelope.MinX;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES] = dfResX;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_ROTATION_PARAM1] = 0;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y] = sEnvelope.MaxY;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_ROTATION_PARAM2] = 0;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES] = -dfResY;
        nRasterXSize = static_cast<int>(std::ceil(dfXSize));
        nRasterYSize = static_cast<int>(std::ceil(dfYSize));
    }

    if (nBandCount == 0 && !pszBandCount)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "%s metadata item missing",
                 MD_BAND_COUNT);
        return false;
    }

    if (!GDALCheckBandCount(nBandCount, false))
        return false;

    if (aeDataTypes.empty() && !pszDataType)
    {
        aeDataTypes.resize(nBandCount, GDT_Byte);
    }
    else if (pszDataType)
    {
        aeDataTypes.clear();
        const CPLStringList aosTokens(CSLTokenizeString2(pszDataType, ", ", 0));
        if (aosTokens.size() == 1)
        {
            const auto eDataType = GDALGetDataTypeByName(aosTokens[0]);
            if (eDataType == GDT_Unknown)
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Invalid value for %s",
                         MD_DATA_TYPE);
                return false;
            }
            aeDataTypes.resize(nBandCount, eDataType);
        }
        else if (aosTokens.size() == nBandCount)
        {
            for (int i = 0; i < nBandCount; ++i)
            {
                const auto eDataType = GDALGetDataTypeByName(aosTokens[i]);
                if (eDataType == GDT_Unknown)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Invalid value for %s", MD_DATA_TYPE);
                    return false;
                }
                aeDataTypes.push_back(eDataType);
            }
        }
        else
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Number of values in %s must be 1 or %s", MD_DATA_TYPE,
                     MD_BAND_COUNT);
            return false;
        }
    }

    const char *pszNoData = GetOption(MD_NODATA);
    if (pszNoData)
    {
        const auto IsValidNoDataStr = [](const char *pszStr)
        {
            if (EQUAL(pszStr, "inf") || EQUAL(pszStr, "-inf") ||
                EQUAL(pszStr, "nan"))
                return true;
            const auto eType = CPLGetValueType(pszStr);
            return eType == CPL_VALUE_INTEGER || eType == CPL_VALUE_REAL;
        };

        aNoData.clear();
        const CPLStringList aosTokens(CSLTokenizeString2(pszNoData, ", ", 0));
        if (aosTokens.size() == 1)
        {
            if (!EQUAL(aosTokens[0], "NONE"))
            {
                if (!IsValidNoDataStr(aosTokens[0]))
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Invalid value for %s", MD_NODATA);
                    return false;
                }
                aNoData.resize(nBandCount,
                               std::pair(true, CPLAtof(aosTokens[0])));
            }
        }
        else if (aosTokens.size() == nBandCount)
        {
            for (int i = 0; i < nBandCount; ++i)
            {
                if (EQUAL(aosTokens[i], "NONE"))
                {
                    aNoData.emplace_back(false, 0);
                }
                else if (IsValidNoDataStr(aosTokens[i]))
                {
                    aNoData.emplace_back(true, CPLAtof(aosTokens[i]));
                }
                else
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Invalid value for %s", MD_NODATA);
                    return false;
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Number of values in %s must be 1 or %s", MD_NODATA,
                     MD_BAND_COUNT);
            return false;
        }
    }

    if (pszColorInterp)
    {
        aeColorInterp.clear();
        const CPLStringList aosTokens(
            CSLTokenizeString2(pszColorInterp, ", ", 0));
        if (aosTokens.size() == 1)
        {
            const auto eInterp = GDALGetColorInterpretationByName(aosTokens[0]);
            if (eInterp == GCI_Undefined &&
                !EQUAL(aosTokens[0],
                       GDALGetColorInterpretationName(GCI_Undefined)))
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Invalid value for %s",
                         MD_COLOR_INTERPRETATION);
                return false;
            }
            aeColorInterp.resize(nBandCount, eInterp);
        }
        else if (aosTokens.size() == nBandCount)
        {
            for (int i = 0; i < nBandCount; ++i)
            {
                const auto eInterp =
                    GDALGetColorInterpretationByName(aosTokens[i]);
                if (eInterp == GCI_Undefined &&
                    !EQUAL(aosTokens[i],
                           GDALGetColorInterpretationName(GCI_Undefined)))
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Invalid value for %s", MD_COLOR_INTERPRETATION);
                    return false;
                }
                aeColorInterp.emplace_back(eInterp);
            }
        }
        else
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Number of values in %s must be 1 or "
                     "%s",
                     MD_COLOR_INTERPRETATION, MD_BAND_COUNT);
            return false;
        }
    }

    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    /*      Create bands.                                                   */
    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    if (aeDataTypes.size() != static_cast<size_t>(nBandCount))
    {
        CPLError(
            CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
            "Number of data types values found not matching number of bands");
        return false;
    }
    if (!aNoData.empty() && aNoData.size() != static_cast<size_t>(nBandCount))
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "Number of nodata values found not matching number of bands");
        return false;
    }
    if (!aeColorInterp.empty() &&
        aeColorInterp.size() != static_cast<size_t>(nBandCount))
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "Number of color interpretation values found not matching "
                 "number of bands");
        return false;
    }

    int nBlockXSize = 256;
    const char *pszBlockXSize = GetOption(MD_BLOCK_X_SIZE);
    if (pszBlockXSize)
    {
        nBlockXSize = atoi(pszBlockXSize);
        if (nBlockXSize <= 0)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Invalid %s",
                     MD_BLOCK_X_SIZE);
            return false;
        }
    }

    int nBlockYSize = 256;
    const char *pszBlockYSize = GetOption(MD_BLOCK_Y_SIZE);
    if (pszBlockYSize)
    {
        nBlockYSize = atoi(pszBlockYSize);
        if (nBlockYSize <= 0)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Invalid %s",
                     MD_BLOCK_Y_SIZE);
            return false;
        }
    }

    if (nBlockXSize > INT_MAX / nBlockYSize)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "Too big %s * %s",
                 MD_BLOCK_X_SIZE, MD_BLOCK_Y_SIZE);
        return false;
    }

    if (dfOvrFactor > 1.0)
    {
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES] *= dfOvrFactor;
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES] *= dfOvrFactor;
        nRasterXSize = static_cast<int>(std::ceil(nRasterXSize / dfOvrFactor));
        nRasterYSize = static_cast<int>(std::ceil(nRasterYSize / dfOvrFactor));
    }

    std::vector<std::string> aosDescriptions;
    std::vector<double> adfCenterWavelength;
    std::vector<double> adfFullWidthHalfMax;
    std::vector<double> adfScale;
    std::vector<double> adfOffset;
    if (bIsStacGeoParquet && poFeature)
    {
        const int nEOBandsIdx = poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex(
            CPLSPrintf("assets.%s.eo:bands", osAssetName.c_str()));
        if (nEOBandsIdx >= 0 &&
            poLayerDefn->GetFieldDefn(nEOBandsIdx)->GetSubType() == OFSTJSON &&
            poFeature->IsFieldSet(nEOBandsIdx))
        {
            const char *pszStr = poFeature->GetFieldAsString(nEOBandsIdx);
            CPLJSONDocument oDoc;
            if (oDoc.LoadMemory(pszStr) &&
                oDoc.GetRoot().GetType() == CPLJSONObject::Type::Array)
            {
                const auto oArray = oDoc.GetRoot().ToArray();
                if (oArray.Size() == nBandCount)
                {
                    int i = 0;
                    aosDescriptions.resize(nBandCount);
                    adfCenterWavelength.resize(nBandCount);
                    adfFullWidthHalfMax.resize(nBandCount);
                    for (const auto &oObj : oArray)
                    {
                        if (oObj.GetType() == CPLJSONObject::Type::Object)
                        {
                            const auto osCommonName =
                                oObj.GetString("common_name");
                            const auto eInterp =
                                GDALGetColorInterpFromSTACCommonName(
                                    osCommonName.c_str());
                            if (eInterp != GCI_Undefined)
                                aeColorInterp[i] = eInterp;

                            const auto osName = oObj.GetString("name");
                            aosDescriptions[i] = osName;

                            const auto osDescription =
                                oObj.GetString("description");
                            if (!osDescription.empty())
                            {
                                if (aosDescriptions[i].empty())
                                    aosDescriptions[i] = osDescription;
                                else
                                    aosDescriptions[i]
                                        .append(" (")
                                        .append(osDescription)
                                        .append(")");
                            }

                            adfCenterWavelength[i] =
                                oObj.GetDouble("center_wavelength");
                            adfFullWidthHalfMax[i] =
                                oObj.GetDouble("full_width_half_max");
                        }
                        ++i;
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        const int nRasterBandsIdx = poLayerDefn->GetFieldIndex(
            CPLSPrintf("assets.%s.raster:bands", osAssetName.c_str()));
        if (nRasterBandsIdx >= 0 &&
            poLayerDefn->GetFieldDefn(nRasterBandsIdx)->GetSubType() ==
                OFSTJSON &&
            poFeature->IsFieldSet(nRasterBandsIdx))
        {
            const char *pszStr = poFeature->GetFieldAsString(nRasterBandsIdx);
            CPLJSONDocument oDoc;
            if (oDoc.LoadMemory(pszStr) &&
                oDoc.GetRoot().GetType() == CPLJSONObject::Type::Array)
            {
                const auto oArray = oDoc.GetRoot().ToArray();
                if (oArray.Size() == nBandCount)
                {
                    int i = 0;
                    adfScale.resize(nBandCount,
                                    std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN());
                    adfOffset.resize(nBandCount,
                                     std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN());
                    for (const auto &oObj : oArray)
                    {
                        if (oObj.GetType() == CPLJSONObject::Type::Object)
                        {
                            adfScale[i] = oObj.GetDouble(
                                "scale",
                                std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN());
                            adfOffset[i] = oObj.GetDouble(
                                "offset",
                                std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN());
                        }
                        ++i;
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }

    GDALTileIndexBand *poFirstBand = nullptr;
    for (int i = 0; i < nBandCount; ++i)
    {
        GDALDataType eDataType = aeDataTypes[i];
        if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
        {
            const char *pszVal = CPLGetXMLValue(apoXMLNodeBands[i],
                                                GTI_XML_BAND_DATATYPE, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
            {
                eDataType = GDALGetDataTypeByName(pszVal);
                if (eDataType == GDT_Unknown)
                    return false;
            }
        }
        auto poBandUniquePtr = std::make_unique<GDALTileIndexBand>(
            this, i + 1, eDataType, nBlockXSize, nBlockYSize);
        auto poBand = poBandUniquePtr.get();
        SetBand(i + 1, poBandUniquePtr.release());
        if (!poFirstBand)
            poFirstBand = poBand;
        if (poBand->GetRasterDataType() != poFirstBand->GetRasterDataType())
        {
            m_bSameDataType = false;
        }

        if (!aosDescriptions.empty() && !aosDescriptions[i].empty())
        {
            poBand->GDALRasterBand::SetDescription(aosDescriptions[i].c_str());
        }
        if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
        {
            const char *pszVal = CPLGetXMLValue(
                apoXMLNodeBands[i], GTI_XML_BAND_DESCRIPTION, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
            {
                poBand->GDALRasterBand::SetDescription(pszVal);
            }
        }

        if (!aNoData.empty() && aNoData[i].first)
        {
            poBand->m_bNoDataValueSet = true;
            poBand->m_dfNoDataValue = aNoData[i].second;
        }
        if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
        {
            const char *pszVal = CPLGetXMLValue(
                apoXMLNodeBands[i], GTI_XML_BAND_NODATAVALUE, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
            {
                poBand->m_bNoDataValueSet = true;
                poBand->m_dfNoDataValue = CPLAtof(pszVal);
            }
        }
        if (poBand->m_bNoDataValueSet != poFirstBand->m_bNoDataValueSet ||
            !IsSameNaNAware(poBand->m_dfNoDataValue,
                            poFirstBand->m_dfNoDataValue))
        {
            m_bSameNoData = false;
        }

        if (!aeColorInterp.empty())
        {
            poBand->m_eColorInterp = aeColorInterp[i];
        }
        if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
        {
            const char *pszVal = CPLGetXMLValue(
                apoXMLNodeBands[i], GTI_XML_BAND_COLORINTERP, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
            {
                poBand->m_eColorInterp =
                    GDALGetColorInterpretationByName(pszVal);
            }
        }

        if (static_cast<int>(adfScale.size()) == nBandCount &&
            !std::isnan(adfScale[i]))
        {
            poBand->m_dfScale = adfScale[i];
        }
        if (const char *pszScale =
                GetOption(CPLSPrintf("BAND_%d_%s", i + 1, MD_BAND_SCALE)))
        {
            poBand->m_dfScale = CPLAtof(pszScale);
        }
        if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
        {
            const char *pszVal =
                CPLGetXMLValue(apoXMLNodeBands[i], GTI_XML_BAND_SCALE, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
            {
                poBand->m_dfScale = CPLAtof(pszVal);
            }
        }

        if (static_cast<int>(adfOffset.size()) == nBandCount &&
            !std::isnan(adfOffset[i]))
        {
            poBand->m_dfOffset = adfOffset[i];
        }
        if (const char *pszOffset =
                GetOption(CPLSPrintf("BAND_%d_%s", i + 1, MD_BAND_OFFSET)))
        {
            poBand->m_dfOffset = CPLAtof(pszOffset);
        }
        if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
        {
            const char *pszVal = CPLGetXMLValue(apoXMLNodeBands[i],
                                                GTI_XML_BAND_OFFSET, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
            {
                poBand->m_dfOffset = CPLAtof(pszVal);
            }
        }

        if (const char *pszUnit =
                GetOption(CPLSPrintf("BAND_%d_%s", i + 1, MD_BAND_UNITTYPE)))
        {
            poBand->m_osUnit = pszUnit;
        }
        if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
        {
            const char *pszVal = CPLGetXMLValue(apoXMLNodeBands[i],
                                                GTI_XML_BAND_UNITTYPE, nullptr);
            if (pszVal)
            {
                poBand->m_osUnit = pszVal;
            }
        }

        if (!apoXMLNodeBands.empty())
        {
            const CPLXMLNode *psBandNode = apoXMLNodeBands[i];
            poBand->oMDMD.XMLInit(psBandNode, TRUE);

            if (const CPLXMLNode *psCategoryNames =
                    CPLGetXMLNode(psBandNode, GTI_XML_CATEGORYNAMES))
            {
                poBand->m_aosCategoryNames =
                    VRTParseCategoryNames(psCategoryNames);
            }

            if (const CPLXMLNode *psColorTable =
                    CPLGetXMLNode(psBandNode, GTI_XML_COLORTABLE))
            {
                poBand->m_poColorTable = VRTParseColorTable(psColorTable);
            }

            if (const CPLXMLNode *psRAT =
                    CPLGetXMLNode(psBandNode, GTI_XML_RAT))
            {
                poBand->m_poRAT =
                    std::make_unique<GDALDefaultRasterAttributeTable>();
                poBand->m_poRAT->XMLInit(psRAT, "");
            }
        }

        if (static_cast<int>(adfCenterWavelength.size()) == nBandCount &&
            adfCenterWavelength[i] != 0)
        {
            poBand->GDALRasterBand::SetMetadataItem(
                "CENTRAL_WAVELENGTH_UM",
                CPLSPrintf("%g", adfCenterWavelength[i]), "IMAGERY");
        }

        if (static_cast<int>(adfFullWidthHalfMax.size()) == nBandCount &&
            adfFullWidthHalfMax[i] != 0)
        {
            poBand->GDALRasterBand::SetMetadataItem(
                "FWHM_UM", CPLSPrintf("%g", adfFullWidthHalfMax[i]), "IMAGERY");
        }
    }

    if (nBandCount == 1 && poFirstBand && poSingleColorTable &&
        !poFirstBand->m_poColorTable)
        poFirstBand->m_poColorTable = std::move(poSingleColorTable);

    const char *pszMaskBand = GetOption(MD_MASK_BAND);
    if (pszMaskBand)
        bHasMaskBand = CPLTestBool(pszMaskBand);
    if (bHasMaskBand)
    {
        m_poMaskBand = std::make_unique<GDALTileIndexBand>(
            this, 0, GDT_Byte, nBlockXSize, nBlockYSize);
    }

    if (dfOvrFactor == 1.0)
    {
        if (psRoot)
        {
            for (const CPLXMLNode *psIter = psRoot->psChild; psIter;
                 psIter = psIter->psNext)
            {
                if (psIter->eType == CXT_Element &&
                    strcmp(psIter->pszValue, GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_ELEMENT) == 0)
                {
                    const char *pszDataset = CPLGetXMLValue(
                        psIter, GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_DATASET, nullptr);
                    const char *pszLayer =
                        CPLGetXMLValue(psIter, GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_LAYER, nullptr);
                    const char *pszFactor = CPLGetXMLValue(
                        psIter, GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_FACTOR, nullptr);
                    if (!pszDataset && !pszLayer && !pszFactor)
                    {
                        CPLError(
                            CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                            "At least one of %s, %s or %s element "
                            "must be present as an %s child",
                            GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_DATASET, GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_LAYER,
                            GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_FACTOR, GTI_XML_OVERVIEW_ELEMENT);
                        return false;
                    }
                    m_aoOverviewDescriptor.emplace_back(
                        std::string(pszDataset ? pszDataset : ""),
                        CPLStringList(
                            GDALDeserializeOpenOptionsFromXML(psIter)),
                        std::string(pszLayer ? pszLayer : ""),
                        pszFactor ? CPLAtof(pszFactor) : 0.0);
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            for (int iOvr = 0;; ++iOvr)
            {
                const char *pszOvrDSName =
                    GetOption(CPLSPrintf("OVERVIEW_%d_DATASET", iOvr));
                const char *pszOpenOptions =
                    GetOption(CPLSPrintf("OVERVIEW_%d_OPEN_OPTIONS", iOvr));
                const char *pszOvrLayer =
                    GetOption(CPLSPrintf("OVERVIEW_%d_LAYER", iOvr));
                const char *pszOvrFactor =
                    GetOption(CPLSPrintf("OVERVIEW_%d_FACTOR", iOvr));
                if (!pszOvrDSName && !pszOvrLayer && !pszOvrFactor)
                {
                    // Before GDAL 3.9.2, we started the iteration at 1.
                    if (iOvr == 0)
                        continue;
                    break;
                }
                m_aoOverviewDescriptor.emplace_back(
                    std::string(pszOvrDSName ? pszOvrDSName : ""),
                    pszOpenOptions ? CPLStringList(CSLTokenizeString2(
                                         pszOpenOptions, ",", 0))
                                   : CPLStringList(),
                    std::string(pszOvrLayer ? pszOvrLayer : ""),
                    pszOvrFactor ? CPLAtof(pszOvrFactor) : 0.0);
            }
        }
    }

    if (psRoot)
    {
        oMDMD.XMLInit(psRoot, TRUE);
    }
    else
    {
        // Set on the dataset all metadata items from the index layer which are
        // not "reserved" keywords.
        CSLConstList papszLayerMD = m_poLayer->GetMetadata();
        for (const auto &[pszKey, pszValue] :
             cpl::IterateNameValue(papszLayerMD))
        {
            if (STARTS_WITH_CI(pszKey, "OVERVIEW_"))
            {
                continue;
            }

            bool bIsVRTItem = false;
            for (const char *pszTest : apszTIOptions)
            {
                if (EQUAL(pszKey, pszTest))
                {
                    bIsVRTItem = true;
                    break;
                }
            }
            if (!bIsVRTItem)
            {
                if (STARTS_WITH_CI(pszKey, "BAND_"))
                {
                    const int nBandNr = atoi(pszKey + strlen("BAND_"));
                    const char *pszNextUnderscore =
                        strchr(pszKey + strlen("BAND_"), '_');
                    if (pszNextUnderscore && nBandNr >= 1 && nBandNr <= nBands)
                    {
                        const char *pszKeyWithoutBand = pszNextUnderscore + 1;
                        bool bIsReservedBandItem = false;
                        for (const char *pszItem : apszReservedBandItems)
                        {
                            if (EQUAL(pszKeyWithoutBand, pszItem))
                            {
                                bIsReservedBandItem = true;
                                break;
                            }
                        }
                        if (!bIsReservedBandItem)
                        {
                            GetRasterBand(nBandNr)
                                ->GDALRasterBand::SetMetadataItem(
                                    pszKeyWithoutBand, pszValue);
                        }
                    }
                }
                else
                {
                    GDALDataset::SetMetadataItem(pszKey, pszValue);
                }
            }
        }
    }

    if (nBandCount > 1 && !GetMetadata("IMAGE_STRUCTURE"))
    {
        GDALDataset::SetMetadataItem("INTERLEAVE", "PIXEL", "IMAGE_STRUCTURE");
    }

    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    /*      Initialize any PAM information.                                 */
    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    SetDescription(poOpenInfo->pszFilename);
    TryLoadXML();

    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    /*      Check for overviews.                                            */
    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    oOvManager.Initialize(this, poOpenInfo->pszFilename);

    return true;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        GetMetadataItem()                             */
/************************************************************************/

const char *GDALTileIndexDataset::GetMetadataItem(const char *pszName,
                                                  const char *pszDomain)
{
    if (pszName && pszDomain && EQUAL(pszDomain, "__DEBUG__"))
    {
        if (EQUAL(pszName, "SCANNED_ONE_FEATURE_AT_OPENING"))
        {
            return m_bScannedOneFeatureAtOpening ? "YES" : "NO";
        }
        else if (EQUAL(pszName, "NUMBER_OF_CONTRIBUTING_SOURCES"))
        {
            return CPLSPrintf("%d", static_cast<int>(m_aoSourceDesc.size()));
        }
        else if (EQUAL(pszName, "MULTI_THREADED_RASTERIO_LAST_USED"))
        {
            return m_bLastMustUseMultiThreading ? "1" : "0";
        }
    }
    return GDALPamDataset::GetMetadataItem(pszName, pszDomain);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                TileIndexSupportsEditingLayerMetadata()               */
/************************************************************************/

bool GDALTileIndexDataset::TileIndexSupportsEditingLayerMetadata() const
{
    return eAccess == GA_Update && m_poVectorDS->GetDriver() &&
           EQUAL(m_poVectorDS->GetDriver()->GetDescription(), "GPKG");
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        SetMetadataItem()                             */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexDataset::SetMetadataItem(const char *pszName,
                                             const char *pszValue,
                                             const char *pszDomain)
{
    if (m_bXMLUpdatable)
    {
        m_bXMLModified = true;
        return GDALDataset::SetMetadataItem(pszName, pszValue, pszDomain);
    }
    else if (TileIndexSupportsEditingLayerMetadata())
    {
        m_poLayer->SetMetadataItem(pszName, pszValue, pszDomain);
        return GDALDataset::SetMetadataItem(pszName, pszValue, pszDomain);
    }
    else
    {
        return GDALPamDataset::SetMetadataItem(pszName, pszValue, pszDomain);
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                           SetMetadata()                              */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexDataset::SetMetadata(char **papszMD, const char *pszDomain)
{
    if (m_bXMLUpdatable)
    {
        m_bXMLModified = true;
        return GDALDataset::SetMetadata(papszMD, pszDomain);
    }
    else if (TileIndexSupportsEditingLayerMetadata())
    {
        if (!pszDomain || pszDomain[0] == 0)
        {
            CPLStringList aosMD(CSLDuplicate(papszMD));

            // Reinject dataset reserved items
            for (const char *pszItem : apszTIOptions)
            {
                if (!aosMD.FetchNameValue(pszItem))
                {
                    const char *pszValue = m_poLayer->GetMetadataItem(pszItem);
                    if (pszValue)
                    {
                        aosMD.SetNameValue(pszItem, pszValue);
                    }
                }
            }

            // Reinject band metadata
            char **papszExistingLayerMD = m_poLayer->GetMetadata();
            for (int i = 0; papszExistingLayerMD && papszExistingLayerMD[i];
                 ++i)
            {
                if (STARTS_WITH_CI(papszExistingLayerMD[i], "BAND_"))
                {
                    aosMD.AddString(papszExistingLayerMD[i]);
                }
            }

            m_poLayer->SetMetadata(aosMD.List(), pszDomain);
        }
        else
        {
            m_poLayer->SetMetadata(papszMD, pszDomain);
        }
        return GDALDataset::SetMetadata(papszMD, pszDomain);
    }
    else
    {
        return GDALPamDataset::SetMetadata(papszMD, pszDomain);
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                     GDALTileIndexDatasetIdentify()                   */
/************************************************************************/

static int GDALTileIndexDatasetIdentify(GDALOpenInfo *poOpenInfo)
{
    if (STARTS_WITH(poOpenInfo->pszFilename, GTI_PREFIX))
        return true;

    if (STARTS_WITH(poOpenInfo->pszFilename, "<GDALTileIndexDataset"))
        return true;

    if (poOpenInfo->nHeaderBytes >= 100 &&
        STARTS_WITH(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(poOpenInfo->pabyHeader),
                    "SQLite format 3"))
    {
        if (ENDS_WITH_CI(poOpenInfo->pszFilename, ".gti.gpkg"))
        {
            // Most likely handled by GTI driver, but we can't be sure
            return GDAL_IDENTIFY_UNKNOWN;
        }
        else if (poOpenInfo->IsSingleAllowedDriver("GTI") &&
                 EQUAL(CPLGetExtension(poOpenInfo->pszFilename), "gpkg"))
        {
            return true;
        }
    }

    if (poOpenInfo->nHeaderBytes > 0 &&
        (poOpenInfo->nOpenFlags & GDAL_OF_RASTER) != 0)
    {
        if (strstr(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(poOpenInfo->pabyHeader),
                   "<GDALTileIndexDataset") ||
            ENDS_WITH_CI(poOpenInfo->pszFilename, ".gti.fgb") ||
            ENDS_WITH_CI(poOpenInfo->pszFilename, ".gti.parquet"))
        {
            return true;
        }
        else if (poOpenInfo->IsSingleAllowedDriver("GTI") &&
                 (EQUAL(CPLGetExtension(poOpenInfo->pszFilename), "fgb") ||
                  EQUAL(CPLGetExtension(poOpenInfo->pszFilename), "parquet")))
        {
            return true;
        }
    }

    return false;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                      GDALTileIndexDatasetOpen()                       */
/************************************************************************/

static GDALDataset *GDALTileIndexDatasetOpen(GDALOpenInfo *poOpenInfo)
{
    if (GDALTileIndexDatasetIdentify(poOpenInfo) == GDAL_IDENTIFY_FALSE)
        return nullptr;
    auto poDS = std::make_unique<GDALTileIndexDataset>();
    if (!poDS->Open(poOpenInfo))
        return nullptr;
    return poDS.release();
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          ~GDALTileIndexDataset()                      */
/************************************************************************/

GDALTileIndexDataset::~GDALTileIndexDataset()
{
    GDALTileIndexDataset::FlushCache(true);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              FlushCache()                            */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexDataset::FlushCache(bool bAtClosing)
{
    CPLErr eErr = CE_None;
    if (bAtClosing && m_bXMLModified)
    {
        CPLXMLNode *psRoot =
            CPLGetXMLNode(m_psXMLTree.get(), "=GDALTileIndexDataset");

        // Suppress existing dataset metadata
        while (true)
        {
            CPLXMLNode *psExistingMetadata = CPLGetXMLNode(psRoot, "Metadata");
            if (!psExistingMetadata)
                break;
            CPLRemoveXMLChild(psRoot, psExistingMetadata);
        }

        // Serialize new dataset metadata
        if (CPLXMLNode *psMD = oMDMD.Serialize())
            CPLAddXMLChild(psRoot, psMD);

        // Update existing band metadata
        if (CPLGetXMLNode(psRoot, GTI_XML_BAND_ELEMENT))
        {
            for (CPLXMLNode *psIter = psRoot->psChild; psIter;
                 psIter = psIter->psNext)
            {
                if (psIter->eType == CXT_Element &&
                    strcmp(psIter->pszValue, GTI_XML_BAND_ELEMENT))
                {
                    const char *pszBand =
                        CPLGetXMLValue(psIter, GTI_XML_BAND_NUMBER, nullptr);
                    if (pszBand)
                    {
                        const int nBand = atoi(pszBand);
                        if (nBand >= 1 && nBand <= nBands)
                        {
                            while (true)
                            {
                                CPLXMLNode *psExistingMetadata =
                                    CPLGetXMLNode(psIter, "Metadata");
                                if (!psExistingMetadata)
                                    break;
                                CPLRemoveXMLChild(psIter, psExistingMetadata);
                            }

                            auto poBand = cpl::down_cast<GDALTileIndexBand *>(
                                papoBands[nBand - 1]);
                            if (CPLXMLNode *psMD = poBand->oMDMD.Serialize())
                                CPLAddXMLChild(psIter, psMD);
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // Create new band objects if they have metadata
            std::vector<CPLXMLTreeCloser> aoBandXML;
            bool bHasBandMD = false;
            for (int i = 1; i <= nBands; ++i)
            {
                auto poBand =
                    cpl::down_cast<GDALTileIndexBand *>(papoBands[i - 1]);
                auto psMD = poBand->oMDMD.Serialize();
                if (psMD)
                    bHasBandMD = true;
                aoBandXML.emplace_back(CPLXMLTreeCloser(psMD));
            }
            if (bHasBandMD)
            {
                for (int i = 1; i <= nBands; ++i)
                {
                    auto poBand =
                        cpl::down_cast<GDALTileIndexBand *>(papoBands[i - 1]);

                    CPLXMLNode *psBand = CPLCreateXMLNode(psRoot, CXT_Element,
                                                          GTI_XML_BAND_ELEMENT);
                    CPLAddXMLAttributeAndValue(psBand, GTI_XML_BAND_NUMBER,
                                               CPLSPrintf("%d", i));
                    CPLAddXMLAttributeAndValue(
                        psBand, GTI_XML_BAND_DATATYPE,
                        GDALGetDataTypeName(poBand->GetRasterDataType()));

                    const char *pszDescription = poBand->GetDescription();
                    if (pszDescription && pszDescription[0])
                        CPLSetXMLValue(psBand, GTI_XML_BAND_DESCRIPTION,
                                       pszDescription);

                    const auto eColorInterp = poBand->GetColorInterpretation();
                    if (eColorInterp != GCI_Undefined)
                        CPLSetXMLValue(
                            psBand, GTI_XML_BAND_COLORINTERP,
                            GDALGetColorInterpretationName(eColorInterp));

                    if (!std::isnan(poBand->m_dfOffset))
                        CPLSetXMLValue(psBand, GTI_XML_BAND_OFFSET,
                                       CPLSPrintf("%.16g", poBand->m_dfOffset));

                    if (!std::isnan(poBand->m_dfScale))
                        CPLSetXMLValue(psBand, GTI_XML_BAND_SCALE,
                                       CPLSPrintf("%.16g", poBand->m_dfScale));

                    if (!poBand->m_osUnit.empty())
                        CPLSetXMLValue(psBand, GTI_XML_BAND_UNITTYPE,
                                       poBand->m_osUnit.c_str());

                    if (poBand->m_bNoDataValueSet)
                    {
                        CPLSetXMLValue(
                            psBand, GTI_XML_BAND_NODATAVALUE,
                            VRTSerializeNoData(poBand->m_dfNoDataValue,
                                               poBand->GetRasterDataType(), 18)
                                .c_str());
                    }
                    if (aoBandXML[i - 1])
                    {
                        CPLAddXMLChild(psBand, aoBandXML[i - 1].release());
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        if (!CPLSerializeXMLTreeToFile(m_psXMLTree.get(), GetDescription()))
            eErr = CE_Failure;
    }

    // We also clear the cache of opened sources, in case the user would
    // change the content of a source and would want the GTI dataset to see
    // the refreshed content.
    m_oMapSharedSources.clear();
    m_dfLastMinXFilter = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();
    m_dfLastMinYFilter = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();
    m_dfLastMaxXFilter = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();
    m_dfLastMaxYFilter = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();
    m_aoSourceDesc.clear();
    if (GDALPamDataset::FlushCache(bAtClosing) != CE_None)
        eErr = CE_Failure;
    return eErr;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                            LoadOverviews()                           */
/************************************************************************/

void GDALTileIndexDataset::LoadOverviews()
{
    if (m_apoOverviews.empty() && !m_aoOverviewDescriptor.empty())
    {
        for (const auto &[osDSName, aosOpenOptions, osLyrName, dfFactor] :
             m_aoOverviewDescriptor)
        {
            CPLStringList aosNewOpenOptions(aosOpenOptions);
            if (dfFactor != 0)
            {
                aosNewOpenOptions.SetNameValue("@FACTOR",
                                               CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfFactor));
            }
            if (!osLyrName.empty())
            {
                aosNewOpenOptions.SetNameValue("@LAYER", osLyrName.c_str());
            }

            std::unique_ptr<GDALDataset> poOvrDS(GDALDataset::Open(
                !osDSName.empty() ? osDSName.c_str() : GetDescription(),
                GDAL_OF_RASTER | GDAL_OF_VERBOSE_ERROR, nullptr,
                aosNewOpenOptions.List(), nullptr));

            const auto IsSmaller =
                [](const GDALDataset *a, const GDALDataset *b)
            {
                return (a->GetRasterXSize() < b->GetRasterXSize() &&
                        a->GetRasterYSize() <= b->GetRasterYSize()) ||
                       (a->GetRasterYSize() < b->GetRasterYSize() &&
                        a->GetRasterXSize() <= b->GetRasterXSize());
            };

            if (poOvrDS &&
                ((m_apoOverviews.empty() && IsSmaller(poOvrDS.get(), this)) ||
                 ((!m_apoOverviews.empty() &&
                   IsSmaller(poOvrDS.get(), m_apoOverviews.back().get())))))
            {
                if (poOvrDS->GetRasterCount() == GetRasterCount())
                {
                    m_apoOverviews.emplace_back(std::move(poOvrDS));
                    // Add the overviews of the overview, unless the OVERVIEW_LEVEL
                    // option option is specified
                    if (aosOpenOptions.FetchNameValue("OVERVIEW_LEVEL") ==
                        nullptr)
                    {
                        const int nOverviewCount = m_apoOverviews.back()
                                                       ->GetRasterBand(1)
                                                       ->GetOverviewCount();
                        for (int i = 0; i < nOverviewCount; ++i)
                        {
                            aosNewOpenOptions.SetNameValue("OVERVIEW_LEVEL",
                                                           CPLSPrintf("%d", i));
                            std::unique_ptr<GDALDataset> poOvrOfOvrDS(
                                GDALDataset::Open(
                                    !osDSName.empty() ? osDSName.c_str()
                                                      : GetDescription(),
                                    GDAL_OF_RASTER | GDAL_OF_VERBOSE_ERROR,
                                    nullptr, aosNewOpenOptions.List(),
                                    nullptr));
                            if (poOvrOfOvrDS &&
                                poOvrOfOvrDS->GetRasterCount() ==
                                    GetRasterCount() &&
                                IsSmaller(poOvrOfOvrDS.get(),
                                          m_apoOverviews.back().get()))
                            {
                                m_apoOverviews.emplace_back(
                                    std::move(poOvrOfOvrDS));
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }
                else
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "%s has not the same number of bands as %s",
                             poOvrDS->GetDescription(), GetDescription());
                }
            }
        }
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          GetOverviewCount()                          */
/************************************************************************/

int GDALTileIndexBand::GetOverviewCount()
{
    const int nPAMOverviews = GDALPamRasterBand::GetOverviewCount();
    if (nPAMOverviews)
        return nPAMOverviews;

    m_poDS->LoadOverviews();
    return static_cast<int>(m_poDS->m_apoOverviews.size());
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             GetOverview()                            */
/************************************************************************/

GDALRasterBand *GDALTileIndexBand::GetOverview(int iOvr)
{
    if (iOvr < 0 || iOvr >= GetOverviewCount())
        return nullptr;

    const int nPAMOverviews = GDALPamRasterBand::GetOverviewCount();
    if (nPAMOverviews)
        return GDALPamRasterBand::GetOverview(iOvr);

    if (nBand == 0)
    {
        auto poBand = m_poDS->m_apoOverviews[iOvr]->GetRasterBand(1);
        if (!poBand)
            return nullptr;
        return poBand->GetMaskBand();
    }
    else
    {
        return m_poDS->m_apoOverviews[iOvr]->GetRasterBand(nBand);
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                           GetGeoTransform()                          */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexDataset::GetGeoTransform(double *padfGeoTransform)
{
    memcpy(padfGeoTransform, m_adfGeoTransform.data(), 6 * sizeof(double));
    return CE_None;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                            GetSpatialRef()                           */
/************************************************************************/

const OGRSpatialReference *GDALTileIndexDataset::GetSpatialRef() const
{
    return m_oSRS.IsEmpty() ? nullptr : &m_oSRS;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                           GDALTileIndexBand()                         */
/************************************************************************/

GDALTileIndexBand::GDALTileIndexBand(GDALTileIndexDataset *poDSIn, int nBandIn,
                                     GDALDataType eDT, int nBlockXSizeIn,
                                     int nBlockYSizeIn)
{
    m_poDS = poDSIn;
    nBand = nBandIn;
    eDataType = eDT;
    nRasterXSize = poDSIn->GetRasterXSize();
    nRasterYSize = poDSIn->GetRasterYSize();
    nBlockXSize = nBlockXSizeIn;
    nBlockYSize = nBlockYSizeIn;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             IReadBlock()                             */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexBand::IReadBlock(int nBlockXOff, int nBlockYOff,
                                     void *pImage)

{
    const int nPixelSize = GDALGetDataTypeSizeBytes(eDataType);

    int nReadXSize = nBlockXSize;
    int nReadYSize = nBlockYSize;
    GetActualBlockSize(nBlockXOff, nBlockYOff, &nReadXSize, &nReadYSize);

    GDALRasterIOExtraArg sExtraArg;
    INIT_RASTERIO_EXTRA_ARG(sExtraArg);

    return IRasterIO(
        GF_Read, nBlockXOff * nBlockXSize, nBlockYOff * nBlockYSize, nReadXSize,
        nReadYSize, pImage, nReadXSize, nReadYSize, eDataType, nPixelSize,
        static_cast<GSpacing>(nPixelSize) * nBlockXSize, &sExtraArg);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             IRasterIO()                              */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexBand::IRasterIO(GDALRWFlag eRWFlag, int nXOff, int nYOff,
                                    int nXSize, int nYSize, void *pData,
                                    int nBufXSize, int nBufYSize,
                                    GDALDataType eBufType, GSpacing nPixelSpace,
                                    GSpacing nLineSpace,
                                    GDALRasterIOExtraArg *psExtraArg)
{
    int anBand[] = {nBand};

    return m_poDS->IRasterIO(eRWFlag, nXOff, nYOff, nXSize, nYSize, pData,
                             nBufXSize, nBufYSize, eBufType, 1, anBand,
                             nPixelSpace, nLineSpace, 0, psExtraArg);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                         IGetDataCoverageStatus()                     */
/************************************************************************/

#ifndef HAVE_GEOS
int GDALTileIndexBand::IGetDataCoverageStatus(int /* nXOff */, int /* nYOff */,
                                              int /* nXSize */,
                                              int /* nYSize */,
                                              int /* nMaskFlagStop */,
                                              double *pdfDataPct)
{
    if (pdfDataPct != nullptr)
        *pdfDataPct = -1.0;
    return GDAL_DATA_COVERAGE_STATUS_UNIMPLEMENTED |
           GDAL_DATA_COVERAGE_STATUS_DATA;
}
#else
int GDALTileIndexBand::IGetDataCoverageStatus(int nXOff, int nYOff, int nXSize,
                                              int nYSize, int nMaskFlagStop,
                                              double *pdfDataPct)
{
    if (pdfDataPct != nullptr)
        *pdfDataPct = -1.0;

    const double dfMinX = m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X] +
                          nXOff * m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
    const double dfMaxX =
        dfMinX + nXSize * m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
    const double dfMaxY = m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y] +
                          nYOff * m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES];
    const double dfMinY =
        dfMaxY + nYSize * m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES];
    m_poDS->m_poLayer->SetSpatialFilterRect(dfMinX, dfMinY, dfMaxX, dfMaxY);
    m_poDS->m_poLayer->ResetReading();

    int nStatus = 0;

    auto poPolyNonCoveredBySources = std::make_unique<OGRPolygon>();
    {
        auto poLR = std::make_unique<OGRLinearRing>();
        poLR->addPoint(nXOff, nYOff);
        poLR->addPoint(nXOff, nYOff + nYSize);
        poLR->addPoint(nXOff + nXSize, nYOff + nYSize);
        poLR->addPoint(nXOff + nXSize, nYOff);
        poLR->addPoint(nXOff, nYOff);
        poPolyNonCoveredBySources->addRingDirectly(poLR.release());
    }
    while (true)
    {
        auto poFeature =
            std::unique_ptr<OGRFeature>(m_poDS->m_poLayer->GetNextFeature());
        if (!poFeature)
            break;
        if (!poFeature->IsFieldSetAndNotNull(m_poDS->m_nLocationFieldIndex))
        {
            continue;
        }

        const auto poGeom = poFeature->GetGeometryRef();
        if (!poGeom || poGeom->IsEmpty())
            continue;

        OGREnvelope sSourceEnvelope;
        poGeom->getEnvelope(&sSourceEnvelope);

        const double dfDstXOff =
            std::max<double>(nXOff, (sSourceEnvelope.MinX -
                                     m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X]) /
                                        m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES]);
        const double dfDstXOff2 = std::min<double>(
            nXOff + nXSize,
            (sSourceEnvelope.MaxX - m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X]) /
                m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES]);
        const double dfDstYOff =
            std::max<double>(nYOff, (sSourceEnvelope.MaxY -
                                     m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y]) /
                                        m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES]);
        const double dfDstYOff2 = std::min<double>(
            nYOff + nYSize,
            (sSourceEnvelope.MinY - m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y]) /
                m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES]);

        // CPLDebug("GTI", "dfDstXOff=%f, dfDstXOff2=%f, dfDstYOff=%f, dfDstYOff2=%f",
        //         dfDstXOff, dfDstXOff2, dfDstYOff, dfDstXOff2);

        // Check if the AOI is fully inside the source
        if (nXOff >= dfDstXOff && nYOff >= dfDstYOff &&
            nXOff + nXSize <= dfDstXOff2 && nYOff + nYSize <= dfDstYOff2)
        {
            if (pdfDataPct)
                *pdfDataPct = 100.0;
            return GDAL_DATA_COVERAGE_STATUS_DATA;
        }

        // Check intersection of bounding boxes.
        if (dfDstXOff2 > nXOff && dfDstYOff2 > nYOff &&
            dfDstXOff < nXOff + nXSize && dfDstYOff < nYOff + nYSize)
        {
            nStatus |= GDAL_DATA_COVERAGE_STATUS_DATA;
            if (poPolyNonCoveredBySources)
            {
                OGRPolygon oPolySource;
                auto poLR = std::make_unique<OGRLinearRing>();
                poLR->addPoint(dfDstXOff, dfDstYOff);
                poLR->addPoint(dfDstXOff, dfDstYOff2);
                poLR->addPoint(dfDstXOff2, dfDstYOff2);
                poLR->addPoint(dfDstXOff2, dfDstYOff);
                poLR->addPoint(dfDstXOff, dfDstYOff);
                oPolySource.addRingDirectly(poLR.release());
                auto poRes = std::unique_ptr<OGRGeometry>(
                    poPolyNonCoveredBySources->Difference(&oPolySource));
                if (poRes && poRes->IsEmpty())
                {
                    if (pdfDataPct)
                        *pdfDataPct = 100.0;
                    return GDAL_DATA_COVERAGE_STATUS_DATA;
                }
                else if (poRes && poRes->getGeometryType() == wkbPolygon)
                {
                    poPolyNonCoveredBySources.reset(
                        poRes.release()->toPolygon());
                }
                else
                {
                    poPolyNonCoveredBySources.reset();
                }
            }
        }
        if (nMaskFlagStop != 0 && (nStatus & nMaskFlagStop) != 0)
        {
            return nStatus;
        }
    }
    if (poPolyNonCoveredBySources)
    {
        if (!poPolyNonCoveredBySources->IsEmpty())
            nStatus |= GDAL_DATA_COVERAGE_STATUS_EMPTY;
        if (pdfDataPct)
            *pdfDataPct = 100.0 * (1.0 - poPolyNonCoveredBySources->get_Area() /
                                             nXSize / nYSize);
    }
    return nStatus;
}
#endif  // HAVE_GEOS

/************************************************************************/
/*                      GetMetadataDomainList()                         */
/************************************************************************/

char **GDALTileIndexBand::GetMetadataDomainList()
{
    return CSLAddString(GDALRasterBand::GetMetadataDomainList(),
                        "LocationInfo");
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          GetMetadataItem()                           */
/************************************************************************/

const char *GDALTileIndexBand::GetMetadataItem(const char *pszName,
                                               const char *pszDomain)

{
    /* ==================================================================== */
    /*      LocationInfo handling.                                          */
    /* ==================================================================== */
    if (pszDomain != nullptr && EQUAL(pszDomain, "LocationInfo") &&
        (STARTS_WITH_CI(pszName, "Pixel_") ||
         STARTS_WITH_CI(pszName, "GeoPixel_")))
    {
        // What pixel are we aiming at?
        int iPixel = 0;
        int iLine = 0;

        if (STARTS_WITH_CI(pszName, "Pixel_"))
        {
            pszName += strlen("Pixel_");
            iPixel = atoi(pszName);
            const char *const pszUnderscore = strchr(pszName, '_');
            if (!pszUnderscore)
                return nullptr;
            iLine = atoi(pszUnderscore + 1);
        }
        else if (STARTS_WITH_CI(pszName, "GeoPixel_"))
        {
            pszName += strlen("GeoPixel_");
            const double dfGeoX = CPLAtof(pszName);
            const char *const pszUnderscore = strchr(pszName, '_');
            if (!pszUnderscore)
                return nullptr;
            const double dfGeoY = CPLAtof(pszUnderscore + 1);

            double adfInvGeoTransform[6] = {0.0};
            if (!GDALInvGeoTransform(m_poDS->m_adfGeoTransform.data(),
                                     adfInvGeoTransform))
                return nullptr;

            iPixel = static_cast<int>(floor(adfInvGeoTransform[0] +
                                            adfInvGeoTransform[1] * dfGeoX +
                                            adfInvGeoTransform[2] * dfGeoY));
            iLine = static_cast<int>(floor(adfInvGeoTransform[3] +
                                           adfInvGeoTransform[4] * dfGeoX +
                                           adfInvGeoTransform[5] * dfGeoY));
        }
        else
        {
            return nullptr;
        }

        if (iPixel < 0 || iLine < 0 || iPixel >= GetXSize() ||
            iLine >= GetYSize())
            return nullptr;

        if (!m_poDS->CollectSources(iPixel, iLine, 1, 1,
                                    /* bMultiThreadAllowed = */ false))
            return nullptr;

        // Format into XML.
        m_osLastLocationInfo = "<LocationInfo>";

        if (!m_poDS->m_aoSourceDesc.empty())
        {
            const auto AddSource =
                [&](const GDALTileIndexDataset::SourceDesc &oSourceDesc)
            {
                m_osLastLocationInfo += "<File>";
                char *const pszXMLEscaped =
                    CPLEscapeString(oSourceDesc.osName.c_str(), -1, CPLES_XML);
                m_osLastLocationInfo += pszXMLEscaped;
                CPLFree(pszXMLEscaped);
                m_osLastLocationInfo += "</File>";
            };

            const int anBand[] = {nBand};
            if (!m_poDS->NeedInitBuffer(1, anBand))
            {
                AddSource(m_poDS->m_aoSourceDesc.back());
            }
            else
            {
                for (const auto &oSourceDesc : m_poDS->m_aoSourceDesc)
                {
                    if (oSourceDesc.poDS)
                        AddSource(oSourceDesc);
                }
            }
        }

        m_osLastLocationInfo += "</LocationInfo>";

        return m_osLastLocationInfo.c_str();
    }

    return GDALPamRasterBand::GetMetadataItem(pszName, pszDomain);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        SetMetadataItem()                             */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexBand::SetMetadataItem(const char *pszName,
                                          const char *pszValue,
                                          const char *pszDomain)
{
    if (nBand > 0 && m_poDS->m_bXMLUpdatable)
    {
        m_poDS->m_bXMLModified = true;
        return GDALRasterBand::SetMetadataItem(pszName, pszValue, pszDomain);
    }
    else if (nBand > 0 && m_poDS->TileIndexSupportsEditingLayerMetadata())
    {
        m_poDS->m_poLayer->SetMetadataItem(
            CPLSPrintf("BAND_%d_%s", nBand, pszName), pszValue, pszDomain);
        return GDALRasterBand::SetMetadataItem(pszName, pszValue, pszDomain);
    }
    else
    {
        return GDALPamRasterBand::SetMetadataItem(pszName, pszValue, pszDomain);
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                           SetMetadata()                              */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexBand::SetMetadata(char **papszMD, const char *pszDomain)
{
    if (nBand > 0 && m_poDS->m_bXMLUpdatable)
    {
        m_poDS->m_bXMLModified = true;
        return GDALRasterBand::SetMetadata(papszMD, pszDomain);
    }
    else if (nBand > 0 && m_poDS->TileIndexSupportsEditingLayerMetadata())
    {
        CPLStringList aosMD;

        if (!pszDomain || pszDomain[0] == 0)
        {
            // Reinject dataset metadata
            char **papszLayerMD = m_poDS->m_poLayer->GetMetadata(pszDomain);
            for (const char *const *papszIter = papszLayerMD;
                 papszIter && *papszIter; ++papszIter)
            {
                if (!STARTS_WITH(*papszIter, "BAND_") ||
                    STARTS_WITH(*papszIter, MD_BAND_COUNT))
                    aosMD.AddString(*papszIter);
            }
        }

        for (int i = 0; papszMD && papszMD[i]; ++i)
        {
            aosMD.AddString(CPLSPrintf("BAND_%d_%s", nBand, papszMD[i]));
        }

        if (!pszDomain || pszDomain[0] == 0)
        {
            for (const char *pszItem : apszReservedBandItems)
            {
                const char *pszKey = CPLSPrintf("BAND_%d_%s", nBand, pszItem);
                if (!aosMD.FetchNameValue(pszKey))
                {
                    if (const char *pszVal =
                            m_poDS->m_poLayer->GetMetadataItem(pszKey))
                    {
                        aosMD.SetNameValue(pszKey, pszVal);
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        m_poDS->m_poLayer->SetMetadata(aosMD.List(), pszDomain);
        return GDALRasterBand::SetMetadata(papszMD, pszDomain);
    }
    else
    {
        return GDALPamRasterBand::SetMetadata(papszMD, pszDomain);
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                         GetSrcDstWin()                               */
/************************************************************************/

static bool GetSrcDstWin(const double adfTileGT[6], int nTileXSize,
                         int nTileYSize, const double adfVRTGT[6],
                         int nVRTXSize, int nVRTYSize, double *pdfSrcXOff,
                         double *pdfSrcYOff, double *pdfSrcXSize,
                         double *pdfSrcYSize, double *pdfDstXOff,
                         double *pdfDstYOff, double *pdfDstXSize,
                         double *pdfDstYSize)
{
    const double minX = adfVRTGT[GT_TOPLEFT_X];
    const double we_res = adfVRTGT[GT_WE_RES];
    const double maxX = minX + nVRTXSize * we_res;
    const double maxY = adfVRTGT[GT_TOPLEFT_Y];
    const double ns_res = adfVRTGT[GT_NS_RES];
    const double minY = maxY + nVRTYSize * ns_res;

    /* Check that the destination bounding box intersects the source bounding
     * box */
    if (adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_X] + nTileXSize * adfTileGT[GT_WE_RES] <= minX)
        return false;
    if (adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_X] >= maxX)
        return false;
    if (adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_Y] + nTileYSize * adfTileGT[GT_NS_RES] >= maxY)
        return false;
    if (adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_Y] <= minY)
        return false;

    if (adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_X] < minX)
    {
        *pdfSrcXOff = (minX - adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_X]) / adfTileGT[GT_WE_RES];
        *pdfDstXOff = 0.0;
    }
    else
    {
        *pdfSrcXOff = 0.0;
        *pdfDstXOff = ((adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_X] - minX) / we_res);
    }
    if (maxY < adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_Y])
    {
        *pdfSrcYOff = (adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_Y] - maxY) / -adfTileGT[GT_NS_RES];
        *pdfDstYOff = 0.0;
    }
    else
    {
        *pdfSrcYOff = 0.0;
        *pdfDstYOff = ((maxY - adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_Y]) / -ns_res);
    }

    *pdfSrcXSize = nTileXSize;
    *pdfSrcYSize = nTileYSize;
    if (*pdfSrcXOff > 0)
        *pdfSrcXSize -= *pdfSrcXOff;
    if (*pdfSrcYOff > 0)
        *pdfSrcYSize -= *pdfSrcYOff;

    const double dfSrcToDstXSize = adfTileGT[GT_WE_RES] / we_res;
    *pdfDstXSize = *pdfSrcXSize * dfSrcToDstXSize;
    const double dfSrcToDstYSize = adfTileGT[GT_NS_RES] / ns_res;
    *pdfDstYSize = *pdfSrcYSize * dfSrcToDstYSize;

    if (*pdfDstXOff + *pdfDstXSize > nVRTXSize)
    {
        *pdfDstXSize = nVRTXSize - *pdfDstXOff;
        *pdfSrcXSize = *pdfDstXSize / dfSrcToDstXSize;
    }

    if (*pdfDstYOff + *pdfDstYSize > nVRTYSize)
    {
        *pdfDstYSize = nVRTYSize - *pdfDstYOff;
        *pdfSrcYSize = *pdfDstYSize / dfSrcToDstYSize;
    }

    return *pdfSrcXSize > 0 && *pdfDstXSize > 0 && *pdfSrcYSize > 0 &&
           *pdfDstYSize > 0;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                   GDALDatasetCastToGTIDataset()                    */
/************************************************************************/

GDALTileIndexDataset *GDALDatasetCastToGTIDataset(GDALDataset *poDS)
{
    return dynamic_cast<GDALTileIndexDataset *>(poDS);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                   GTIGetSourcesMoreRecentThan()                    */
/************************************************************************/

std::vector<GTISourceDesc>
GTIGetSourcesMoreRecentThan(GDALTileIndexDataset *poDS, int64_t mTime)
{
    return poDS->GetSourcesMoreRecentThan(mTime);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                       GetSourcesMoreRecentThan()                     */
/************************************************************************/

std::vector<GTISourceDesc>
GDALTileIndexDataset::GetSourcesMoreRecentThan(int64_t mTime)
{
    std::vector<GTISourceDesc> oRes;

    m_poLayer->SetSpatialFilter(nullptr);
    for (auto &&poFeature : m_poLayer)
    {
        if (!poFeature->IsFieldSetAndNotNull(m_nLocationFieldIndex))
        {
            continue;
        }

        auto poGeom = poFeature->GetGeometryRef();
        if (!poGeom || poGeom->IsEmpty())
            continue;

        OGREnvelope sEnvelope;
        poGeom->getEnvelope(&sEnvelope);

        double dfXOff = (sEnvelope.MinX - m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X]) /
                        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
        if (dfXOff >= nRasterXSize)
            continue;

        double dfYOff = (sEnvelope.MaxY - m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y]) /
                        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES];
        if (dfYOff >= nRasterYSize)
            continue;

        double dfXSize =
            (sEnvelope.MaxX - sEnvelope.MinX) / m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
        if (dfXOff < 0)
        {
            dfXSize += dfXOff;
            dfXOff = 0;
            if (dfXSize <= 0)
                continue;
        }

        double dfYSize = (sEnvelope.MaxY - sEnvelope.MinY) /
                         std::fabs(m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES]);
        if (dfYOff < 0)
        {
            dfYSize += dfYOff;
            dfYOff = 0;
            if (dfYSize <= 0)
                continue;
        }

        const char *pszTileName =
            poFeature->GetFieldAsString(m_nLocationFieldIndex);
        const std::string osTileName(
            GetAbsoluteFileName(pszTileName, GetDescription()));
        VSIStatBufL sStatSource;
        if (VSIStatL(osTileName.c_str(), &sStatSource) != 0 ||
            sStatSource.st_mtime <= mTime)
        {
            continue;
        }

        constexpr double EPS = 1e-8;
        GTISourceDesc oSourceDesc;
        oSourceDesc.osFilename = osTileName;
        oSourceDesc.nDstXOff = static_cast<int>(dfXOff + EPS);
        oSourceDesc.nDstYOff = static_cast<int>(dfYOff + EPS);
        oSourceDesc.nDstXSize = static_cast<int>(dfXSize + 0.5);
        oSourceDesc.nDstYSize = static_cast<int>(dfYSize + 0.5);
        oRes.emplace_back(std::move(oSourceDesc));
    }

    return oRes;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                         GetSourceDesc()                              */
/************************************************************************/

bool GDALTileIndexDataset::GetSourceDesc(const std::string &osTileName,
                                         SourceDesc &oSourceDesc,
                                         std::mutex *pMutex)
{
    std::shared_ptr<GDALDataset> poTileDS;

    if (pMutex)
        pMutex->lock();
    const bool bTileKnown = m_oMapSharedSources.tryGet(osTileName, poTileDS);
    if (pMutex)
        pMutex->unlock();

    if (!bTileKnown)
    {
        poTileDS = std::shared_ptr<GDALDataset>(
            GDALProxyPoolDataset::Create(
                osTileName.c_str(), nullptr, GA_ReadOnly,
                /* bShared = */ true, m_osUniqueHandle.c_str()),
            GDALDatasetUniquePtrReleaser());
        if (!poTileDS || poTileDS->GetRasterCount() == 0)
        {
            return false;
        }

        // do palette -> RGB(A) expansion if needed
        if (!GTIDoPaletteExpansionIfNeeded(poTileDS, nBands))
            return false;

        const OGRSpatialReference *poTileSRS;
        if (!m_oSRS.IsEmpty() &&
            (poTileSRS = poTileDS->GetSpatialRef()) != nullptr &&
            !m_oSRS.IsSame(poTileSRS))
        {
            CPLDebug("VRT",
                     "Tile %s has not the same SRS as the VRT. "
                     "Proceed to on-the-fly warping",
                     osTileName.c_str());

            CPLStringList aosOptions;
            aosOptions.AddString("-of");
            aosOptions.AddString("VRT");

            if ((poTileDS->GetRasterBand(1)->GetColorTable() == nullptr &&
                 poTileDS->GetRasterBand(1)->GetCategoryNames() == nullptr) ||
                m_eResampling == GRIORA_Mode)
            {
                aosOptions.AddString("-r");
                aosOptions.AddString(m_osResampling.c_str());
            }

            if (m_osWKT.empty())
            {
                char *pszWKT = nullptr;
                const char *const apszWKTOptions[] = {"FORMAT=WKT2_2019",
                                                      nullptr};
                m_oSRS.exportToWkt(&pszWKT, apszWKTOptions);
                if (pszWKT)
                    m_osWKT = pszWKT;
                CPLFree(pszWKT);
            }
            if (m_osWKT.empty())
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                         "Cannot export VRT SRS to WKT2");
                return false;
            }

            aosOptions.AddString("-t_srs");
            aosOptions.AddString(m_osWKT.c_str());

            // First pass to get the extent of the tile in the
            // target VRT SRS
            GDALWarpAppOptions *psWarpOptions =
                GDALWarpAppOptionsNew(aosOptions.List(), nullptr);
            GDALDatasetH ahSrcDS[] = {GDALDataset::ToHandle(poTileDS.get())};
            int bUsageError = false;
            auto poWarpDS =
                std::unique_ptr<GDALDataset>(GDALDataset::FromHandle(GDALWarp(
                    "", nullptr, 1, ahSrcDS, psWarpOptions, &bUsageError)));
            GDALWarpAppOptionsFree(psWarpOptions);
            if (!poWarpDS)
            {
                return false;
            }

            // Second pass to create a warped source VRT whose
            // extent is aligned on the one of the target VRT
            double adfWarpDSGeoTransform[6];
            const auto eErr = poWarpDS->GetGeoTransform(adfWarpDSGeoTransform);
            CPL_IGNORE_RET_VAL(eErr);
            CPLAssert(eErr == CE_None);
            const double dfVRTMinX = m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X];
            const double dfVRTResX = m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
            const double dfVRTMaxY = m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y];
            const double dfVRTResYAbs = -m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES];
            const double dfWarpMinX =
                std::floor((adfWarpDSGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X] - dfVRTMinX) /
                           dfVRTResX) *
                    dfVRTResX +
                dfVRTMinX;
            const double dfWarpMaxX =
                std::ceil((adfWarpDSGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X] +
                           adfWarpDSGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES] *
                               poWarpDS->GetRasterXSize() -
                           dfVRTMinX) /
                          dfVRTResX) *
                    dfVRTResX +
                dfVRTMinX;
            const double dfWarpMaxY =
                dfVRTMaxY -
                std::floor((dfVRTMaxY - adfWarpDSGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y]) /
                           dfVRTResYAbs) *
                    dfVRTResYAbs;
            const double dfWarpMinY =
                dfVRTMaxY -
                std::ceil((dfVRTMaxY - (adfWarpDSGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y] +
                                        adfWarpDSGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES] *
                                            poWarpDS->GetRasterYSize())) /
                          dfVRTResYAbs) *
                    dfVRTResYAbs;

            aosOptions.AddString("-te");
            aosOptions.AddString(CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfWarpMinX));
            aosOptions.AddString(CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfWarpMinY));
            aosOptions.AddString(CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfWarpMaxX));
            aosOptions.AddString(CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfWarpMaxY));

            aosOptions.AddString("-tr");
            aosOptions.AddString(CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfVRTResX));
            aosOptions.AddString(CPLSPrintf("%.17g", dfVRTResYAbs));

            aosOptions.AddString("-dstalpha");

            psWarpOptions = GDALWarpAppOptionsNew(aosOptions.List(), nullptr);
            poWarpDS.reset(GDALDataset::FromHandle(GDALWarp(
                "", nullptr, 1, ahSrcDS, psWarpOptions, &bUsageError)));
            GDALWarpAppOptionsFree(psWarpOptions);
            if (!poWarpDS)
            {
                return false;
            }

            poTileDS.reset(poWarpDS.release());
        }

        if (pMutex)
            pMutex->lock();
        m_oMapSharedSources.insert(osTileName, poTileDS);
        if (pMutex)
            pMutex->unlock();
    }

    double adfGeoTransformTile[6];
    if (poTileDS->GetGeoTransform(adfGeoTransformTile) != CE_None)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "%s lacks geotransform",
                 osTileName.c_str());
        return false;
    }

    bool bHasNoData = false;
    bool bSameNoData = true;
    double dfNoDataValue = 0;
    GDALRasterBand *poMaskBand = nullptr;
    const int nBandCount = poTileDS->GetRasterCount();
    for (int iBand = 0; iBand < nBandCount; ++iBand)
    {
        auto poTileBand = poTileDS->GetRasterBand(iBand + 1);
        int bThisBandHasNoData = false;
        const double dfThisBandNoDataValue =
            poTileBand->GetNoDataValue(&bThisBandHasNoData);
        if (bThisBandHasNoData)
        {
            bHasNoData = true;
            dfNoDataValue = dfThisBandNoDataValue;
        }
        if (iBand > 0 &&
            (static_cast<int>(bThisBandHasNoData) !=
                 static_cast<int>(bHasNoData) ||
             (bHasNoData &&
              !IsSameNaNAware(dfNoDataValue, dfThisBandNoDataValue))))
        {
            bSameNoData = false;
        }

        if (poTileBand->GetMaskFlags() == GMF_PER_DATASET)
            poMaskBand = poTileBand->GetMaskBand();
        else if (poTileBand->GetColorInterpretation() == GCI_AlphaBand)
            poMaskBand = poTileBand;
    }

    std::unique_ptr<VRTSimpleSource> poSource;
    if (!bHasNoData)
    {
        poSource = std::make_unique<VRTSimpleSource>();
    }
    else
    {
        auto poComplexSource = std::make_unique<VRTComplexSource>();
        poComplexSource->SetNoDataValue(dfNoDataValue);
        poSource = std::move(poComplexSource);
    }

    GetSrcDstWin(adfGeoTransformTile, poTileDS->GetRasterXSize(),
                 poTileDS->GetRasterYSize(), m_adfGeoTransform.data(),
                 GetRasterXSize(), GetRasterYSize(), &poSource->m_dfSrcXOff,
                 &poSource->m_dfSrcYOff, &poSource->m_dfSrcXSize,
                 &poSource->m_dfSrcYSize, &poSource->m_dfDstXOff,
                 &poSource->m_dfDstYOff, &poSource->m_dfDstXSize,
                 &poSource->m_dfDstYSize);

    oSourceDesc.osName = osTileName;
    oSourceDesc.poDS = std::move(poTileDS);
    oSourceDesc.poSource = std::move(poSource);
    oSourceDesc.bHasNoData = bHasNoData;
    oSourceDesc.bSameNoData = bSameNoData;
    if (bSameNoData)
        oSourceDesc.dfSameNoData = dfNoDataValue;
    oSourceDesc.poMaskBand = poMaskBand;
    return true;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                           GetNumThreads()                            */
/************************************************************************/

int GDALTileIndexDataset::GetNumThreads() const
{
    const char *pszNumThreads =
        CSLFetchNameValueDef(GetOpenOptions(), "NUM_THREADS", nullptr);
    if (!pszNumThreads)
        pszNumThreads = CPLGetConfigOption("GTI_NUM_THREADS", nullptr);
    if (!pszNumThreads)
        pszNumThreads = CPLGetConfigOption("GDAL_NUM_THREADS", "ALL_CPUS");
    if (EQUAL(pszNumThreads, "0") || EQUAL(pszNumThreads, "1"))
        return atoi(pszNumThreads);
    const int nMaxPoolSize = GDALGetMaxDatasetPoolSize();
    const int nLimit = std::min(CPLGetNumCPUs(), nMaxPoolSize);
    if (EQUAL(pszNumThreads, "ALL_CPUS"))
        return nLimit;
    return std::min(atoi(pszNumThreads), nLimit);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        CollectSources()                              */
/************************************************************************/

bool GDALTileIndexDataset::CollectSources(double dfXOff, double dfYOff,
                                          double dfXSize, double dfYSize,
                                          bool bMultiThreadAllowed)
{
    const double dfMinX =
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X] + dfXOff * m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
    const double dfMaxX = dfMinX + dfXSize * m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
    const double dfMaxY =
        m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y] + dfYOff * m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES];
    const double dfMinY = dfMaxY + dfYSize * m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES];

    if (dfMinX == m_dfLastMinXFilter && dfMinY == m_dfLastMinYFilter &&
        dfMaxX == m_dfLastMaxXFilter && dfMaxY == m_dfLastMaxYFilter)
    {
        return true;
    }

    m_dfLastMinXFilter = dfMinX;
    m_dfLastMinYFilter = dfMinY;
    m_dfLastMaxXFilter = dfMaxX;
    m_dfLastMaxYFilter = dfMaxY;
    m_bLastMustUseMultiThreading = false;

    m_poLayer->SetSpatialFilterRect(dfMinX, dfMinY, dfMaxX, dfMaxY);
    m_poLayer->ResetReading();

    m_aoSourceDesc.clear();
    while (true)
    {
        auto poFeature =
            std::unique_ptr<OGRFeature>(m_poLayer->GetNextFeature());
        if (!poFeature)
            break;
        if (!poFeature->IsFieldSetAndNotNull(m_nLocationFieldIndex))
        {
            continue;
        }

        SourceDesc oSourceDesc;
        oSourceDesc.poFeature = std::move(poFeature);
        m_aoSourceDesc.emplace_back(std::move(oSourceDesc));

        if (m_aoSourceDesc.size() > 10 * 1000 * 1000)
        {
            // Safety belt...
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "More than 10 million contributing sources to a "
                     "single RasterIO() request is not supported");
            return false;
        }
    }

    constexpr int MINIMUM_PIXEL_COUNT_FOR_THREADED_IO = 1000 * 1000;
    if (bMultiThreadAllowed && m_aoSourceDesc.size() > 1 &&
        dfXSize * dfYSize > MINIMUM_PIXEL_COUNT_FOR_THREADED_IO)
    {
        if (m_nNumThreads < 0)
            m_nNumThreads = GetNumThreads();
        bMultiThreadAllowed = m_nNumThreads > 1;
    }
    else
    {
        bMultiThreadAllowed = false;
    }

    if (bMultiThreadAllowed)
    {
        CPLRectObj sGlobalBounds;
        sGlobalBounds.minx = dfXOff;
        sGlobalBounds.miny = dfYOff;
        sGlobalBounds.maxx = dfXOff + dfXSize;
        sGlobalBounds.maxy = dfYOff + dfYSize;
        CPLQuadTree *hQuadTree = CPLQuadTreeCreate(&sGlobalBounds, nullptr);

        bool bCompatibleOfMultiThread = true;
        std::set<std::string> oSetTileNames;
        for (const auto &oSourceDesc : m_aoSourceDesc)
        {
            const char *pszTileName =
                oSourceDesc.poFeature->GetFieldAsString(m_nLocationFieldIndex);
            if (oSetTileNames.find(pszTileName) != oSetTileNames.end())
            {
                bCompatibleOfMultiThread = false;
                break;
            }
            oSetTileNames.insert(pszTileName);

            const auto poGeom = oSourceDesc.poFeature->GetGeometryRef();
            if (!poGeom || poGeom->IsEmpty())
                continue;

            OGREnvelope sEnvelope;
            poGeom->getEnvelope(&sEnvelope);

            CPLRectObj sSourceBounds;
            sSourceBounds.minx =
                (sEnvelope.MinX - m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X]) /
                m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
            sSourceBounds.maxx =
                (sEnvelope.MaxX - m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_X]) /
                m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
            // Yes use of MaxY to compute miny is intended given that MaxY is
            // in georeferenced space whereas miny is in pixel space.
            sSourceBounds.miny =
                (sEnvelope.MaxY - m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y]) /
                m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES];
            // Same here for maxy vs Miny
            sSourceBounds.maxy =
                (sEnvelope.MinY - m_adfGeoTransform[GT_TOPLEFT_Y]) /
                m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES];

            // Clamp to global bounds and some epsilon to avoid adjacent tiles
            // to be considered as overlapping
            constexpr double EPSILON = 0.1;
            sSourceBounds.minx =
                std::max(sGlobalBounds.minx, sSourceBounds.minx) + EPSILON;
            sSourceBounds.maxx =
                std::min(sGlobalBounds.maxx, sSourceBounds.maxx) - EPSILON;
            sSourceBounds.miny =
                std::max(sGlobalBounds.miny, sSourceBounds.miny) + EPSILON;
            sSourceBounds.maxy =
                std::min(sGlobalBounds.maxy, sSourceBounds.maxy) - EPSILON;

            // Check that the new source doesn't overlap an existing one.
            if (CPLQuadTreeHasMatch(hQuadTree, &sSourceBounds))
            {
                bCompatibleOfMultiThread = false;
                break;
            }

            CPLQuadTreeInsertWithBounds(
                hQuadTree,
                const_cast<void *>(static_cast<const void *>(&oSourceDesc)),
                &sSourceBounds);
        }

        CPLQuadTreeDestroy(hQuadTree);

        if (bCompatibleOfMultiThread)
        {
            m_bLastMustUseMultiThreading = true;
            return true;
        }
    }

    if (m_aoSourceDesc.size() > 1)
    {
        SortSourceDesc();
    }

    // Try to find the last (most prioritary) fully opaque source covering
    // the whole AOI. We only need to start rendering from it.
    size_t i = m_aoSourceDesc.size();
    while (i > 0)
    {
        --i;
        auto &poFeature = m_aoSourceDesc[i].poFeature;
        const char *pszTileName =
            poFeature->GetFieldAsString(m_nLocationFieldIndex);
        const std::string osTileName(
            GetAbsoluteFileName(pszTileName, GetDescription()));

        SourceDesc oSourceDesc;
        if (!GetSourceDesc(osTileName, oSourceDesc, nullptr))
            continue;

        // Check consistency of bounding box in tile index vs actual
        // extent of the tile.
        double adfTileGT[6];
        if (oSourceDesc.poDS->GetGeoTransform(adfTileGT) == CE_None &&
            adfTileGT[GT_ROTATION_PARAM1] == 0 &&
            adfTileGT[GT_ROTATION_PARAM2] == 0)
        {
            OGREnvelope sActualTileExtent;
            sActualTileExtent.MinX = adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_X];
            sActualTileExtent.MaxX =
                sActualTileExtent.MinX +
                oSourceDesc.poDS->GetRasterXSize() * adfTileGT[GT_WE_RES];
            sActualTileExtent.MaxY = adfTileGT[GT_TOPLEFT_Y];
            sActualTileExtent.MinY =
                sActualTileExtent.MaxY +
                oSourceDesc.poDS->GetRasterYSize() * adfTileGT[GT_NS_RES];
            const auto poGeom = poFeature->GetGeometryRef();
            if (poGeom && !poGeom->IsEmpty())
            {
                OGREnvelope sGeomTileExtent;
                poGeom->getEnvelope(&sGeomTileExtent);
                sGeomTileExtent.MinX -= m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
                sGeomTileExtent.MaxX += m_adfGeoTransform[GT_WE_RES];
                sGeomTileExtent.MinY -= std::fabs(m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES]);
                sGeomTileExtent.MaxY += std::fabs(m_adfGeoTransform[GT_NS_RES]);
                if (!sGeomTileExtent.Contains(sActualTileExtent))
                {
                    if (!sGeomTileExtent.Intersects(sActualTileExtent))
                    {
                        CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                                 "Tile index is out of sync with actual "
                                 "extent of %s. Bounding box from tile index "
                                 "is (%g, %g, %g, %g) does not intersect at "
                                 "all bounding box from tile (%g, %g, %g, %g)",
                                 osTileName.c_str(), sGeomTileExtent.MinX,
                                 sGeomTileExtent.MinY, sGeomTileExtent.MaxX,
                                 sGeomTileExtent.MaxY, sActualTileExtent.MinX,
                                 sActualTileExtent.MinY, sActualTileExtent.MaxX,
                                 sActualTileExtent.MaxY);
                        continue;
                    }
                    CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Tile index is out of sync with actual extent "
                             "of %s. Bounding box from tile index is (%g, %g, "
                             "%g, %g) does not fully contain bounding box from "
                             "tile (%g, %g, %g, %g)",
                             osTileName.c_str(), sGeomTileExtent.MinX,
                             sGeomTileExtent.MinY, sGeomTileExtent.MaxX,
                             sGeomTileExtent.MaxY, sActualTileExtent.MinX,
                             sActualTileExtent.MinY, sActualTileExtent.MaxX,
                             sActualTileExtent.MaxY);
                }
            }
        }

        const auto &poSource = oSourceDesc.poSource;
        if (dfXOff >= poSource->m_dfDstXOff + poSource->m_dfDstXSize ||
            dfYOff >= poSource->m_dfDstYOff + poSource->m_dfDstYSize ||
            poSource->m_dfDstXOff >= dfXOff + dfXSize ||
            poSource->m_dfDstYOff >= dfYOff + dfYSize)
        {
            // Can happen as some spatial filters select slightly more features
            // than strictly needed.
            continue;
        }

        const bool bCoversWholeAOI =
            (poSource->m_dfDstXOff <= dfXOff &&
             poSource->m_dfDstYOff <= dfYOff &&
             poSource->m_dfDstXOff + poSource->m_dfDstXSize >=
                 dfXOff + dfXSize &&
             poSource->m_dfDstYOff + poSource->m_dfDstYSize >=
                 dfYOff + dfYSize);
        oSourceDesc.bCoversWholeAOI = bCoversWholeAOI;

        m_aoSourceDesc[i] = std::move(oSourceDesc);

        if (m_aoSourceDesc[i].bCoversWholeAOI &&
            !m_aoSourceDesc[i].bHasNoData && !m_aoSourceDesc[i].poMaskBand)
        {
            break;
        }
    }

    if (i > 0)
    {
        // Remove sources that will not be rendered
        m_aoSourceDesc.erase(m_aoSourceDesc.begin(),
                             m_aoSourceDesc.begin() + i);
    }

    // Truncate the array when its last elements have no dataset
    i = m_aoSourceDesc.size();
    while (i > 0)
    {
        --i;
        if (!m_aoSourceDesc[i].poDS)
        {
            m_aoSourceDesc.resize(i);
            break;
        }
    }

    return true;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          SortSourceDesc()                            */
/************************************************************************/

void GDALTileIndexDataset::SortSourceDesc()
{
    const auto eFieldType = m_nSortFieldIndex >= 0
                                ? m_poLayer->GetLayerDefn()
                                      ->GetFieldDefn(m_nSortFieldIndex)
                                      ->GetType()
                                : OFTMaxType;
    std::sort(
        m_aoSourceDesc.begin(), m_aoSourceDesc.end(),
        [this, eFieldType](const SourceDesc &a, const SourceDesc &b)
        {
            const auto &poFeatureA = (m_bSortFieldAsc ? a : b).poFeature;
            const auto &poFeatureB = (m_bSortFieldAsc ? b : a).poFeature;
            if (m_nSortFieldIndex >= 0 &&
                poFeatureA->IsFieldSetAndNotNull(m_nSortFieldIndex) &&
                poFeatureB->IsFieldSetAndNotNull(m_nSortFieldIndex))
            {
                if (eFieldType == OFTString)
                {
                    const int nCmp =
                        strcmp(poFeatureA->GetFieldAsString(m_nSortFieldIndex),
                               poFeatureB->GetFieldAsString(m_nSortFieldIndex));
                    if (nCmp < 0)
                        return true;
                    if (nCmp > 0)
                        return false;
                }
                else if (eFieldType == OFTInteger || eFieldType == OFTInteger64)
                {
                    const auto nA =
                        poFeatureA->GetFieldAsInteger64(m_nSortFieldIndex);
                    const auto nB =
                        poFeatureB->GetFieldAsInteger64(m_nSortFieldIndex);
                    if (nA < nB)
                        return true;
                    if (nA > nB)
                        return false;
                }
                else if (eFieldType == OFTReal)
                {
                    const auto dfA =
                        poFeatureA->GetFieldAsDouble(m_nSortFieldIndex);
                    const auto dfB =
                        poFeatureB->GetFieldAsDouble(m_nSortFieldIndex);
                    if (dfA < dfB)
                        return true;
                    if (dfA > dfB)
                        return false;
                }
                else if (eFieldType == OFTDate || eFieldType == OFTDateTime)
                {
                    const auto poFieldA =
                        poFeatureA->GetRawFieldRef(m_nSortFieldIndex);
                    const auto poFieldB =
                        poFeatureB->GetRawFieldRef(m_nSortFieldIndex);

#define COMPARE_DATE_COMPONENT(comp)                                           \
    do                                                                         \
    {                                                                          \
        if (poFieldA->Date.comp < poFieldB->Date.comp)                         \
            return true;                                                       \
        if (poFieldA->Date.comp > poFieldB->Date.comp)                         \
            return false;                                                      \
    } while (0)

                    COMPARE_DATE_COMPONENT(Year);
                    COMPARE_DATE_COMPONENT(Month);
                    COMPARE_DATE_COMPONENT(Day);
                    COMPARE_DATE_COMPONENT(Hour);
                    COMPARE_DATE_COMPONENT(Minute);
                    COMPARE_DATE_COMPONENT(Second);
                }
                else
                {
                    CPLAssert(false);
                }
            }
            return poFeatureA->GetFID() < poFeatureB->GetFID();
        });
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                   CompositeSrcWithMaskIntoDest()                     */
/************************************************************************/

static void
CompositeSrcWithMaskIntoDest(const int nOutXSize, const int nOutYSize,
                             const GDALDataType eBufType,
                             const int nBufTypeSize, const GSpacing nPixelSpace,
                             const GSpacing nLineSpace, const GByte *pabySrc,
                             const GByte *const pabyMask, GByte *const pabyDest)
{
    size_t iMaskIdx = 0;
    if (eBufType == GDT_Byte)
    {
        // Optimization for byte case
        for (int iY = 0; iY < nOutYSize; iY++)
        {
            GByte *pabyDestLine =
                pabyDest + static_cast<GPtrDiff_t>(iY * nLineSpace);
            int iX = 0;
#ifdef USE_SSE2_OPTIM
            if (nPixelSpace == 1)
            {
                // SSE2 version up to 6 times faster than portable version
                const auto xmm_zero = _mm_setzero_si128();
                constexpr int SIZEOF_REG = static_cast<int>(sizeof(xmm_zero));
                for (; iX + SIZEOF_REG <= nOutXSize; iX += SIZEOF_REG)
                {
                    auto xmm_mask = _mm_loadu_si128(
                        reinterpret_cast<__m128i const *>(pabyMask + iMaskIdx));
                    const auto xmm_src = _mm_loadu_si128(
                        reinterpret_cast<__m128i const *>(pabySrc));
                    auto xmm_dst = _mm_loadu_si128(
                        reinterpret_cast<__m128i const *>(pabyDestLine));
#ifdef USE_SSE41_OPTIM
                    xmm_dst = _mm_blendv_epi8(xmm_dst, xmm_src, xmm_mask);
#else
                    // mask[i] = 0 becomes 255, and mask[i] != 0 becomes 0
                    xmm_mask = _mm_cmpeq_epi8(xmm_mask, xmm_zero);
                    // dst_data[i] = (mask[i] & dst_data[i]) |
                    //               (~mask[i] & src_data[i])
                    // That is:
                    // dst_data[i] = dst_data[i] when mask[i] = 255
                    // dst_data[i] = src_data[i] when mask[i] = 0
                    xmm_dst = _mm_or_si128(_mm_and_si128(xmm_mask, xmm_dst),
                                           _mm_andnot_si128(xmm_mask, xmm_src));
#endif
                    _mm_storeu_si128(reinterpret_cast<__m128i *>(pabyDestLine),
                                     xmm_dst);
                    pabyDestLine += SIZEOF_REG;
                    pabySrc += SIZEOF_REG;
                    iMaskIdx += SIZEOF_REG;
                }
            }
#endif
            for (; iX < nOutXSize; iX++)
            {
                if (pabyMask[iMaskIdx])
                {
                    *pabyDestLine = *pabySrc;
                }
                pabyDestLine += static_cast<GPtrDiff_t>(nPixelSpace);
                pabySrc++;
                iMaskIdx++;
            }
        }
    }
    else
    {
        for (int iY = 0; iY < nOutYSize; iY++)
        {
            GByte *pabyDestLine =
                pabyDest + static_cast<GPtrDiff_t>(iY * nLineSpace);
            for (int iX = 0; iX < nOutXSize; iX++)
            {
                if (pabyMask[iMaskIdx])
                {
                    memcpy(pabyDestLine, pabySrc, nBufTypeSize);
                }
                pabyDestLine += static_cast<GPtrDiff_t>(nPixelSpace);
                pabySrc += nBufTypeSize;
                iMaskIdx++;
            }
        }
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                         NeedInitBuffer()                             */
/************************************************************************/

// Must be called after CollectSources()
bool GDALTileIndexDataset::NeedInitBuffer(int nBandCount,
                                          const int *panBandMap) const
{
    bool bNeedInitBuffer = true;
    // If the last source (that is the most prioritary one) covers at least
    // the window of interest and is fully opaque, then we don't need to
    // initialize the buffer, and can directly render that source.
    int bHasNoData = false;
    if (!m_aoSourceDesc.empty() && m_aoSourceDesc.back().bCoversWholeAOI &&
        (!m_aoSourceDesc.back().bHasNoData ||
         // Also, if there's a single source and that the VRT bands and the
         // source bands have the same nodata value, we can skip initialization.
         (m_aoSourceDesc.size() == 1 && m_aoSourceDesc.back().bSameNoData &&
          m_bSameNoData && m_bSameDataType &&
          IsSameNaNAware(papoBands[0]->GetNoDataValue(&bHasNoData),
                         m_aoSourceDesc.back().dfSameNoData) &&
          bHasNoData)) &&
        (!m_aoSourceDesc.back().poMaskBand ||
         // Also, if there's a single source that has a mask band, and the VRT
         // bands have no-nodata or a 0-nodata value, we can skip
         // initialization.
         (m_aoSourceDesc.size() == 1 && m_bSameDataType &&
          !(nBandCount == 1 && panBandMap[0] == 0) && m_bSameNoData &&
          papoBands[0]->GetNoDataValue(&bHasNoData) == 0)))
    {
        bNeedInitBuffer = false;
    }
    return bNeedInitBuffer;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                            InitBuffer()                              */
/************************************************************************/

void GDALTileIndexDataset::InitBuffer(void *pData, int nBufXSize, int nBufYSize,
                                      GDALDataType eBufType, int nBandCount,
                                      const int *panBandMap,
                                      GSpacing nPixelSpace, GSpacing nLineSpace,
                                      GSpacing nBandSpace) const
{
    const int nBufTypeSize = GDALGetDataTypeSizeBytes(eBufType);
    if (m_bSameNoData && nBandCount > 1 &&
        ((nPixelSpace == nBufTypeSize &&
          nLineSpace == nBufXSize * nPixelSpace &&
          nBandSpace == nBufYSize * nLineSpace) ||
         (nBandSpace == nBufTypeSize &&
          nPixelSpace == nBandCount * nBandSpace &&
          nLineSpace == nBufXSize * nPixelSpace)))
    {
        const int nBandNr = panBandMap[0];
        auto poVRTBand =
            nBandNr == 0
                ? m_poMaskBand.get()
                : cpl::down_cast<GDALTileIndexBand *>(papoBands[nBandNr - 1]);
        const double dfNoData = poVRTBand->m_dfNoDataValue;
        if (dfNoData == 0.0)
        {
            memset(pData, 0,
                   static_cast<size_t>(nBufXSize) * nBufYSize * nBandCount *
                       nBufTypeSize);
        }
        else
        {
            GDALCopyWords64(
                &dfNoData, GDT_Float64, 0, pData, eBufType, nBufTypeSize,
                static_cast<size_t>(nBufXSize) * nBufYSize * nBandCount);
        }
    }
    else
    {
        for (int i = 0; i < nBandCount; ++i)
        {
            const int nBandNr = panBandMap[i];
            auto poVRTBand = nBandNr == 0 ? m_poMaskBand.get()
                                          : cpl::down_cast<GDALTileIndexBand *>(
                                                papoBands[nBandNr - 1]);
            GByte *pabyBandData = static_cast<GByte *>(pData) + i * nBandSpace;
            if (nPixelSpace == nBufTypeSize &&
                poVRTBand->m_dfNoDataValue == 0.0)
            {
                if (nLineSpace == nBufXSize * nPixelSpace)
                {
                    memset(pabyBandData, 0,
                           static_cast<size_t>(nBufYSize * nLineSpace));
                }
                else
                {
                    for (int iLine = 0; iLine < nBufYSize; iLine++)
                    {
                        memset(static_cast<GByte *>(pabyBandData) +
                                   static_cast<GIntBig>(iLine) * nLineSpace,
                               0, static_cast<size_t>(nBufXSize * nPixelSpace));
                    }
                }
            }
            else
            {
                double dfWriteValue = poVRTBand->m_dfNoDataValue;

                for (int iLine = 0; iLine < nBufYSize; iLine++)
                {
                    GDALCopyWords(&dfWriteValue, GDT_Float64, 0,
                                  static_cast<GByte *>(pabyBandData) +
                                      static_cast<GIntBig>(nLineSpace) * iLine,
                                  eBufType, static_cast<int>(nPixelSpace),
                                  nBufXSize);
                }
            }
        }
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                            RenderSource()                            */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexDataset::RenderSource(
    const SourceDesc &oSourceDesc, bool bNeedInitBuffer, int nBandNrMax,
    int nXOff, int nYOff, int nXSize, int nYSize, double dfXOff, double dfYOff,
    double dfXSize, double dfYSize, int nBufXSize, int nBufYSize, void *pData,
    GDALDataType eBufType, int nBandCount, BANDMAP_TYPE panBandMap,
    GSpacing nPixelSpace, GSpacing nLineSpace, GSpacing nBandSpace,
    GDALRasterIOExtraArg *psExtraArg,
    VRTSource::WorkingState &oWorkingState) const
{
    auto &poTileDS = oSourceDesc.poDS;
    auto &poSource = oSourceDesc.poSource;
    auto poComplexSource = dynamic_cast<VRTComplexSource *>(poSource.get());
    CPLErr eErr = CE_None;

    if (poTileDS->GetRasterCount() + 1 == nBandNrMax &&
        papoBands[nBandNrMax - 1]->GetColorInterpretation() == GCI_AlphaBand &&
        papoBands[nBandNrMax - 1]->GetRasterDataType() == GDT_Byte)
    {
        // Special case when there's typically a mix of RGB and RGBA source
        // datasets and we read a RGB one.
        for (int iBand = 0; iBand < nBandCount && eErr == CE_None; ++iBand)
        {
            const int nBandNr = panBandMap[iBand];
            if (nBandNr == nBandNrMax)
            {
                // The window we will actually request from the source raster band.
                double dfReqXOff = 0.0;
                double dfReqYOff = 0.0;
                double dfReqXSize = 0.0;
                double dfReqYSize = 0.0;
                int nReqXOff = 0;
                int nReqYOff = 0;
                int nReqXSize = 0;
                int nReqYSize = 0;

                // The window we will actual set _within_ the pData buffer.
                int nOutXOff = 0;
                int nOutYOff = 0;
                int nOutXSize = 0;
                int nOutYSize = 0;

                bool bError = false;

                auto poTileBand = poTileDS->GetRasterBand(1);
                poSource->SetRasterBand(poTileBand, false);
                if (poSource->GetSrcDstWindow(
                        dfXOff, dfYOff, dfXSize, dfYSize, nBufXSize, nBufYSize,
                        &dfReqXOff, &dfReqYOff, &dfReqXSize, &dfReqYSize,
                        &nReqXOff, &nReqYOff, &nReqXSize, &nReqYSize, &nOutXOff,
                        &nOutYOff, &nOutXSize, &nOutYSize, bError))
                {
                    GByte *pabyOut =
                        static_cast<GByte *>(pData) +
                        static_cast<GPtrDiff_t>(iBand * nBandSpace +
                                                nOutXOff * nPixelSpace +
                                                nOutYOff * nLineSpace);

                    constexpr GByte n255 = 255;
                    for (int iY = 0; iY < nOutYSize; iY++)
                    {
                        GDALCopyWords(
                            &n255, GDT_Byte, 0,
                            pabyOut + static_cast<GPtrDiff_t>(iY * nLineSpace),
                            eBufType, static_cast<int>(nPixelSpace), nOutXSize);
                    }
                }
            }
            else
            {
                auto poTileBand = poTileDS->GetRasterBand(nBandNr);
                if (poComplexSource)
                {
                    int bHasNoData = false;
                    const double dfNoDataValue =
                        poTileBand->GetNoDataValue(&bHasNoData);
                    poComplexSource->SetNoDataValue(
                        bHasNoData ? dfNoDataValue : VRT_NODATA_UNSET);
                }
                poSource->SetRasterBand(poTileBand, false);

                GDALRasterIOExtraArg sExtraArg;
                INIT_RASTERIO_EXTRA_ARG(sExtraArg);
                if (psExtraArg->eResampleAlg != GRIORA_NearestNeighbour)
                {
                    // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
                    sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = psExtraArg->eResampleAlg;
                }
                else
                {
                    // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
                    sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = m_eResampling;
                }

                GByte *pabyBandData =
                    static_cast<GByte *>(pData) + iBand * nBandSpace;
                eErr = poSource->RasterIO(
                    poTileBand->GetRasterDataType(), nXOff, nYOff, nXSize,
                    nYSize, pabyBandData, nBufXSize, nBufYSize, eBufType,
                    nPixelSpace, nLineSpace, &sExtraArg, oWorkingState);
            }
        }
        return eErr;
    }
    else if (poTileDS->GetRasterCount() < nBandNrMax)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "%s has not enough bands.",
                 oSourceDesc.osName.c_str());
        return CE_Failure;
    }

    if ((oSourceDesc.poMaskBand && bNeedInitBuffer) || nBandNrMax == 0)
    {
        // The window we will actually request from the source raster band.
        double dfReqXOff = 0.0;
        double dfReqYOff = 0.0;
        double dfReqXSize = 0.0;
        double dfReqYSize = 0.0;
        int nReqXOff = 0;
        int nReqYOff = 0;
        int nReqXSize = 0;
        int nReqYSize = 0;

        // The window we will actual set _within_ the pData buffer.
        int nOutXOff = 0;
        int nOutYOff = 0;
        int nOutXSize = 0;
        int nOutYSize = 0;

        bool bError = false;

        auto poFirstTileBand = poTileDS->GetRasterBand(1);
        poSource->SetRasterBand(poFirstTileBand, false);
        if (poSource->GetSrcDstWindow(
                dfXOff, dfYOff, dfXSize, dfYSize, nBufXSize, nBufYSize,
                &dfReqXOff, &dfReqYOff, &dfReqXSize, &dfReqYSize, &nReqXOff,
                &nReqYOff, &nReqXSize, &nReqYSize, &nOutXOff, &nOutYOff,
                &nOutXSize, &nOutYSize, bError))
        {
            int iMaskBandIdx = -1;
            if (eBufType == GDT_Byte && nBandNrMax == 0)
            {
                // when called from m_poMaskBand
                iMaskBandIdx = 0;
            }
            else if (oSourceDesc.poMaskBand)
            {
                // If we request a Byte buffer and the mask band is actually
                // one of the queried bands of this request, we can save
                // requesting it separately.
                const int nMaskBandNr = oSourceDesc.poMaskBand->GetBand();
                if (eBufType == GDT_Byte && nMaskBandNr >= 1 &&
                    nMaskBandNr <= poTileDS->GetRasterCount() &&
                    poTileDS->GetRasterBand(nMaskBandNr) ==
                        oSourceDesc.poMaskBand)
                {
                    for (int iBand = 0; iBand < nBandCount; ++iBand)
                    {
                        if (panBandMap[iBand] == nMaskBandNr)
                        {
                            iMaskBandIdx = iBand;
                            break;
                        }
                    }
                }
            }

            GDALRasterIOExtraArg sExtraArg;
            INIT_RASTERIO_EXTRA_ARG(sExtraArg);
            if (psExtraArg->eResampleAlg != GRIORA_NearestNeighbour)
            {
                // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
                sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = psExtraArg->eResampleAlg;
            }
            else
            {
                // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
                sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = m_eResampling;
            }
            sExtraArg.bFloatingPointWindowValidity = TRUE;
            sExtraArg.dfXOff = dfReqXOff;
            sExtraArg.dfYOff = dfReqYOff;
            sExtraArg.dfXSize = dfReqXSize;
            sExtraArg.dfYSize = dfReqYSize;

            if (iMaskBandIdx < 0 && oSourceDesc.abyMask.empty() &&
                oSourceDesc.poMaskBand)
            {
                // Fetch the mask band
                try
                {
                    oSourceDesc.abyMask.resize(static_cast<size_t>(nOutXSize) *
                                               nOutYSize);
                }
                catch (const std::bad_alloc &)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                             "Cannot allocate working buffer for mask");
                    return CE_Failure;
                }

                if (oSourceDesc.poMaskBand->RasterIO(
                        GF_Read, nReqXOff, nReqYOff, nReqXSize, nReqYSize,
                        oSourceDesc.abyMask.data(), nOutXSize, nOutYSize,
                        GDT_Byte, 0, 0, &sExtraArg) != CE_None)
                {
                    oSourceDesc.abyMask.clear();
                    return CE_Failure;
                }
            }

            // Allocate a temporary contiguous buffer to receive pixel data
            const int nBufTypeSize = GDALGetDataTypeSizeBytes(eBufType);
            const size_t nWorkBufferBandSize =
                static_cast<size_t>(nOutXSize) * nOutYSize * nBufTypeSize;
            std::vector<GByte> abyWorkBuffer;
            try
            {
                abyWorkBuffer.resize(nBandCount * nWorkBufferBandSize);
            }
            catch (const std::bad_alloc &)
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                         "Cannot allocate working buffer");
                return CE_Failure;
            }

            const GByte *const pabyMask =
                iMaskBandIdx >= 0
                    ? abyWorkBuffer.data() + iMaskBandIdx * nWorkBufferBandSize
                    : oSourceDesc.abyMask.data();

            if (nBandNrMax == 0)
            {
                // Special case when called from m_poMaskBand
                if (poTileDS->GetRasterBand(1)->GetMaskBand()->RasterIO(
                        GF_Read, nReqXOff, nReqYOff, nReqXSize, nReqYSize,
                        abyWorkBuffer.data(), nOutXSize, nOutYSize, eBufType, 0,
                        0, &sExtraArg) != CE_None)
                {
                    return CE_Failure;
                }
            }
            else if (poTileDS->RasterIO(GF_Read, nReqXOff, nReqYOff, nReqXSize,
                                        nReqYSize, abyWorkBuffer.data(),
                                        nOutXSize, nOutYSize, eBufType,
                                        nBandCount, panBandMap, 0, 0, 0,
                                        &sExtraArg) != CE_None)
            {
                return CE_Failure;
            }

            // Compose the temporary contiguous buffer into the target
            // buffer, taking into account the mask
            GByte *pabyOut = static_cast<GByte *>(pData) +
                             static_cast<GPtrDiff_t>(nOutXOff * nPixelSpace +
                                                     nOutYOff * nLineSpace);

            for (int iBand = 0; iBand < nBandCount && eErr == CE_None; ++iBand)
            {
                GByte *pabyDestBand =
                    pabyOut + static_cast<GPtrDiff_t>(iBand * nBandSpace);
                const GByte *pabySrc =
                    abyWorkBuffer.data() + iBand * nWorkBufferBandSize;

                CompositeSrcWithMaskIntoDest(
                    nOutXSize, nOutYSize, eBufType, nBufTypeSize, nPixelSpace,
                    nLineSpace, pabySrc, pabyMask, pabyDestBand);
            }
        }
    }
    else if (m_bSameDataType && !bNeedInitBuffer && oSourceDesc.bHasNoData)
    {
        // We create a non-VRTComplexSource SimpleSource copy of poSource
        // to be able to call DatasetRasterIO()
        VRTSimpleSource oSimpleSource(poSource.get(), 1.0, 1.0);

        GDALRasterIOExtraArg sExtraArg;
        INIT_RASTERIO_EXTRA_ARG(sExtraArg);
        if (psExtraArg->eResampleAlg != GRIORA_NearestNeighbour)
        {
            // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
            sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = psExtraArg->eResampleAlg;
        }
        else
        {
            // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
            sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = m_eResampling;
        }

        auto poTileBand = poTileDS->GetRasterBand(panBandMap[0]);
        oSimpleSource.SetRasterBand(poTileBand, false);
        eErr = oSimpleSource.DatasetRasterIO(
            papoBands[0]->GetRasterDataType(), nXOff, nYOff, nXSize, nYSize,
            pData, nBufXSize, nBufYSize, eBufType, nBandCount, panBandMap,
            nPixelSpace, nLineSpace, nBandSpace, &sExtraArg);
    }
    else if (m_bSameDataType && !poComplexSource)
    {
        auto poTileBand = poTileDS->GetRasterBand(panBandMap[0]);
        poSource->SetRasterBand(poTileBand, false);

        GDALRasterIOExtraArg sExtraArg;
        INIT_RASTERIO_EXTRA_ARG(sExtraArg);
        if (poTileBand->GetColorTable())
        {
            // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
            sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = GRIORA_NearestNeighbour;
        }
        else if (psExtraArg->eResampleAlg != GRIORA_NearestNeighbour)
        {
            // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
            sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = psExtraArg->eResampleAlg;
        }
        else
        {
            // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
            sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = m_eResampling;
        }

        eErr = poSource->DatasetRasterIO(
            papoBands[0]->GetRasterDataType(), nXOff, nYOff, nXSize, nYSize,
            pData, nBufXSize, nBufYSize, eBufType, nBandCount, panBandMap,
            nPixelSpace, nLineSpace, nBandSpace, &sExtraArg);
    }
    else
    {
        for (int i = 0; i < nBandCount && eErr == CE_None; ++i)
        {
            const int nBandNr = panBandMap[i];
            GByte *pabyBandData = static_cast<GByte *>(pData) + i * nBandSpace;
            auto poTileBand = poTileDS->GetRasterBand(nBandNr);
            if (poComplexSource)
            {
                int bHasNoData = false;
                const double dfNoDataValue =
                    poTileBand->GetNoDataValue(&bHasNoData);
                poComplexSource->SetNoDataValue(bHasNoData ? dfNoDataValue
                                                           : VRT_NODATA_UNSET);
            }
            poSource->SetRasterBand(poTileBand, false);

            GDALRasterIOExtraArg sExtraArg;
            INIT_RASTERIO_EXTRA_ARG(sExtraArg);
            if (poTileBand->GetColorTable())
            {
                // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
                sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = GRIORA_NearestNeighbour;
            }
            else if (psExtraArg->eResampleAlg != GRIORA_NearestNeighbour)
            {
                // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
                sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = psExtraArg->eResampleAlg;
            }
            else
            {
                // cppcheck-suppress redundantAssignment
                sExtraArg.eResampleAlg = m_eResampling;
            }

            eErr = poSource->RasterIO(
                papoBands[nBandNr - 1]->GetRasterDataType(), nXOff, nYOff,
                nXSize, nYSize, pabyBandData, nBufXSize, nBufYSize, eBufType,
                nPixelSpace, nLineSpace, &sExtraArg, oWorkingState);
        }
    }
    return eErr;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             IRasterIO()                              */
/************************************************************************/

CPLErr GDALTileIndexDataset::IRasterIO(
    GDALRWFlag eRWFlag, int nXOff, int nYOff, int nXSize, int nYSize,
    void *pData, int nBufXSize, int nBufYSize, GDALDataType eBufType,
    int nBandCount, BANDMAP_TYPE panBandMap, GSpacing nPixelSpace,
    GSpacing nLineSpace, GSpacing nBandSpace, GDALRasterIOExtraArg *psExtraArg)
{
    if (eRWFlag != GF_Read)
        return CE_Failure;

    if (nBufXSize < nXSize && nBufYSize < nYSize && AreOverviewsEnabled())
    {
        int bTried = FALSE;
        const CPLErr eErr = TryOverviewRasterIO(
            eRWFlag, nXOff, nYOff, nXSize, nYSize, pData, nBufXSize, nBufYSize,
            eBufType, nBandCount, panBandMap, nPixelSpace, nLineSpace,
            nBandSpace, psExtraArg, &bTried);
        if (bTried)
            return eErr;
    }

    double dfXOff = nXOff;
    double dfYOff = nYOff;
    double dfXSize = nXSize;
    double dfYSize = nYSize;
    if (psExtraArg->bFloatingPointWindowValidity)
    {
        dfXOff = psExtraArg->dfXOff;
        dfYOff = psExtraArg->dfYOff;
        dfXSize = psExtraArg->dfXSize;
        dfYSize = psExtraArg->dfYSize;
    }

    if (!CollectSources(dfXOff, dfYOff, dfXSize, dfYSize,
                        /* bMultiThreadAllowed = */ true))
    {
        return CE_Failure;
    }

    // We might be called with nBandCount == 1 && panBandMap[0] == 0
    // to mean m_poMaskBand
    int nBandNrMax = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < nBandCount; ++i)
    {
        const int nBandNr = panBandMap[i];
        nBandNrMax = std::max(nBandNrMax, nBandNr);
    }

    const bool bNeedInitBuffer =
        m_bLastMustUseMultiThreading || NeedInitBuffer(nBandCount, panBandMap);

    if (!bNeedInitBuffer)
    {
        return RenderSource(
            m_aoSourceDesc.back(), bNeedInitBuffer, nBandNrMax, nXOff, nYOff,
            nXSize, nYSize, dfXOff, dfYOff, dfXSize, dfYSize, nBufXSize,
            nBufYSize, pData, eBufType, nBandCount, panBandMap, nPixelSpace,
            nLineSpace, nBandSpace, psExtraArg, m_oWorkingState);
    }
    else
    {
        InitBuffer(pData, nBufXSize, nBufYSize, eBufType, nBandCount,
                   panBandMap, nPixelSpace, nLineSpace, nBandSpace);

        if (m_bLastMustUseMultiThreading)
        {
            std::atomic<bool> bSuccess = true;
            const int nContributingSources =
                static_cast<int>(m_aoSourceDesc.size());
            CPLWorkerThreadPool *psThreadPool = GDALGetGlobalThreadPool(
                std::min(nContributingSources, m_nNumThreads));
            const int nThreads =
                std::min(nContributingSources, psThreadPool->GetThreadCount());
            CPLDebugOnly("GTI",
                         "IRasterIO(): use optimized "
                         "multi-threaded code path. "
                         "Using %d threads",
                         nThreads);

            {
                std::lock_guard oLock(m_oQueueWorkingStates.oMutex);
                if (m_oQueueWorkingStates.oStates.size() <
                    static_cast<size_t>(nThreads))
                {
                    m_oQueueWorkingStates.oStates.resize(nThreads);
                }
                for (int i = 0; i < nThreads; ++i)
                {
                    if (!m_oQueueWorkingStates.oStates[i])
                        m_oQueueWorkingStates.oStates[i] =
                            std::make_unique<VRTSource::WorkingState>();
                }
            }

            auto oQueue = psThreadPool->CreateJobQueue();
            std::atomic<int> nCompletedJobs = 0;
            std::string osErrorMsg;
            for (auto &oSourceDesc : m_aoSourceDesc)
            {
                auto psJob = new RasterIOJob();
                psJob->poDS = this;
                psJob->pbSuccess = &bSuccess;
                psJob->pnCompletedJobs = &nCompletedJobs;
                psJob->poQueueWorkingStates = &m_oQueueWorkingStates;
                psJob->nBandNrMax = nBandNrMax;
                psJob->posErrorMsg = &osErrorMsg;
                psJob->nXOff = nXOff;
                psJob->nYOff = nYOff;
                psJob->nXSize = nXSize;
                psJob->nYSize = nYSize;
                psJob->pData = pData;
                psJob->nBufXSize = nBufXSize;
                psJob->nBufYSize = nBufYSize;
                psJob->eBufType = eBufType;
                psJob->nBandCount = nBandCount;
                psJob->panBandMap = panBandMap;
                psJob->nPixelSpace = nPixelSpace;
                psJob->nLineSpace = nLineSpace;
                psJob->nBandSpace = nBandSpace;
                psJob->psExtraArg = psExtraArg;

                psJob->osTileName = oSourceDesc.poFeature->GetFieldAsString(
                    m_nLocationFieldIndex);

                if (!oQueue->SubmitJob(RasterIOJob::Func, psJob))
                {
                    delete psJob;
                    bSuccess = false;
                    break;
                }
            }

            while (oQueue->WaitEvent())
            {
                // Quite rough progress callback. We could do better by counting
                // the number of contributing pixels.
                if (psExtraArg->pfnProgress)
                {
                    psExtraArg->pfnProgress(double(nCompletedJobs.load()) /
                                                nContributingSources,
                                            "", psExtraArg->pProgressData);
                }
            }

            if (!osErrorMsg.empty())
            {
                CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined, "%s", osErrorMsg.c_str());
            }

            if (bSuccess && psExtraArg->pfnProgress)
            {
                psExtraArg->pfnProgress(1.0, "", psExtraArg->pProgressData);
            }

            return bSuccess ? CE_None : CE_Failure;
        }
        else
        {
            // Now render from bottom of the stack to top.
            for (auto &oSourceDesc : m_aoSourceDesc)
            {
                if (oSourceDesc.poDS &&
                    RenderSource(oSourceDesc, bNeedInitBuffer, nBandNrMax,
                                 nXOff, nYOff, nXSize, nYSize, dfXOff, dfYOff,
                                 dfXSize, dfYSize, nBufXSize, nBufYSize, pData,
                                 eBufType, nBandCount, panBandMap, nPixelSpace,
                                 nLineSpace, nBandSpace, psExtraArg,
                                 m_oWorkingState) != CE_None)
                    return CE_Failure;
            }

            if (psExtraArg->pfnProgress)
            {
                psExtraArg->pfnProgress(1.0, "", psExtraArg->pProgressData);
            }

            return CE_None;
        }
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                 GDALTileIndexDataset::RasterIOJob::Func()            */
/************************************************************************/

void GDALTileIndexDataset::RasterIOJob::Func(void *pData)
{
    auto psJob =
        std::unique_ptr<RasterIOJob>(static_cast<RasterIOJob *>(pData));
    if (*psJob->pbSuccess)
    {
        const std::string osTileName(GetAbsoluteFileName(
            psJob->osTileName.c_str(), psJob->poDS->GetDescription()));

        SourceDesc oSourceDesc;

        std::vector<CPLErrorHandlerAccumulatorStruct> aoErrors;
        CPLInstallErrorHandlerAccumulator(aoErrors);
        const bool bCanOpenSource =
            psJob->poDS->GetSourceDesc(osTileName, oSourceDesc,
                                       &psJob->poQueueWorkingStates->oMutex) &&
            oSourceDesc.poDS;
        CPLUninstallErrorHandlerAccumulator();

        if (!bCanOpenSource)
        {
            if (!aoErrors.empty())
            {
                std::lock_guard oLock(psJob->poQueueWorkingStates->oMutex);
                if (psJob->posErrorMsg->empty())
                    *(psJob->posErrorMsg) = aoErrors.back().msg;
            }
            *psJob->pbSuccess = false;
        }
        else
        {
            GDALRasterIOExtraArg sArg = *(psJob->psExtraArg);
            sArg.pfnProgress = nullptr;
            sArg.pProgressData = nullptr;

            std::unique_ptr<VRTSource::WorkingState> poWorkingState;
            {
                std::lock_guard oLock(psJob->poQueueWorkingStates->oMutex);
                poWorkingState =
                    std::move(psJob->poQueueWorkingStates->oStates.back());
                psJob->poQueueWorkingStates->oStates.pop_back();
                CPLAssert(poWorkingState.get());
            }

            double dfXOff = psJob->nXOff;
            double dfYOff = psJob->nYOff;
            double dfXSize = psJob->nXSize;
            double dfYSize = psJob->nYSize;
            if (psJob->psExtraArg->bFloatingPointWindowValidity)
            {
                dfXOff = psJob->psExtraArg->dfXOff;
                dfYOff = psJob->psExtraArg->dfYOff;
                dfXSize = psJob->psExtraArg->dfXSize;
                dfYSize = psJob->psExtraArg->dfYSize;
            }

            aoErrors.clear();
            CPLInstallErrorHandlerAccumulator(aoErrors);
            const bool bRenderOK =
                psJob->poDS->RenderSource(
                    oSourceDesc, /*bNeedInitBuffer = */ true, psJob->nBandNrMax,
                    psJob->nXOff, psJob->nYOff, psJob->nXSize, psJob->nYSize,
                    dfXOff, dfYOff, dfXSize, dfYSize, psJob->nBufXSize,
                    psJob->nBufYSize, psJob->pData, psJob->eBufType,
                    psJob->nBandCount, psJob->panBandMap, psJob->nPixelSpace,
                    psJob->nLineSpace, psJob->nBandSpace, &sArg,
                    *(poWorkingState.get())) == CE_None;
            CPLUninstallErrorHandlerAccumulator();

            if (!bRenderOK)
            {
                if (!aoErrors.empty())
                {
                    std::lock_guard oLock(psJob->poQueueWorkingStates->oMutex);
                    if (psJob->posErrorMsg->empty())
                        *(psJob->posErrorMsg) = aoErrors.back().msg;
                }
                *psJob->pbSuccess = false;
            }

            {
                std::lock_guard oLock(psJob->poQueueWorkingStates->oMutex);
                psJob->poQueueWorkingStates->oStates.push_back(
                    std::move(poWorkingState));
            }
        }
    }

    ++(*psJob->pnCompletedJobs);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                         GDALRegister_GTI()                           */
/************************************************************************/

void GDALRegister_GTI()
{
    if (GDALGetDriverByName("GTI") != nullptr)
        return;

    auto poDriver = std::make_unique<GDALDriver>();

    poDriver->SetDescription("GTI");
    poDriver->SetMetadataItem(GDAL_DCAP_RASTER, "YES");
    poDriver->SetMetadataItem(GDAL_DMD_LONGNAME, "GDAL Raster Tile Index");
    poDriver->SetMetadataItem(GDAL_DMD_EXTENSIONS, "gti.gpkg gti.fgb gti");
    poDriver->SetMetadataItem(GDAL_DMD_CONNECTION_PREFIX, GTI_PREFIX);
    poDriver->SetMetadataItem(GDAL_DMD_HELPTOPIC, "drivers/raster/gti.html");

    poDriver->pfnOpen = GDALTileIndexDatasetOpen;
    poDriver->pfnIdentify = GDALTileIndexDatasetIdentify;

    poDriver->SetMetadataItem(GDAL_DCAP_VIRTUALIO, "YES");

    poDriver->SetMetadataItem(
        GDAL_DMD_OPENOPTIONLIST,
        "<OpenOptionList>"
        "  <Option name='LAYER' type='string'/>"
        "  <Option name='LOCATION_FIELD' type='string'/>"
        "  <Option name='SORT_FIELD' type='string'/>"
        "  <Option name='SORT_FIELD_ASC' type='boolean'/>"
        "  <Option name='FILTER' type='string'/>"
        "  <Option name='SRS' type='string'/>"
        "  <Option name='RESX' type='float'/>"
        "  <Option name='RESY' type='float'/>"
        "  <Option name='MINX' type='float'/>"
        "  <Option name='MINY' type='float'/>"
        "  <Option name='MAXX' type='float'/>"
        "  <Option name='MAXY' type='float'/>"
        "<Option name='NUM_THREADS' type='string' description="
        "'Number of worker threads for reading. Can be set to ALL_CPUS' "
        "default='ALL_CPUS'/>"
        "</OpenOptionList>");

#ifdef BUILT_AS_PLUGIN
    // Used by gdaladdo and test_gdaladdo.py
    poDriver->SetMetadataItem("IS_PLUGIN", "YES");
#endif

    GetGDALDriverManager()->RegisterDriver(poDriver.release());
}
